Operating systems based on LINUX. Which ones are the most famous? Linux OS folder structure


The history of this operating system began in 1983, then Linux had not yet had its modern name, Richard Stallman began working on it. After about eight years, he had almost completed the development of all system programs included in its composition.

In the 90s, a young hacker and programmer joined work on the system. Linus Torvalds, he developed the kernel for the operating system. And as can be seen from the name of this man, the system got its name from him. By the way, the penguin, which became the emblem of the system, was previously Linus’s personal symbol, but it was the programmer’s wife, Tove, who came up with the idea of ​​making this penguin a symbol of the operating system.

In September 1991, Torvalds posted the source code on the Internet for the first time; any user could download it. This immediately attracted the attention of hundreds of programmers, who downloaded the source code and began working on it, adding their own programs. From that moment on, its free and free distribution began. In the first years, only individual programmers were involved in this, but later entire companies joined the development. An interesting fact is that if now developments similar system were taken up on a commercial basis, then about 11 billion dollars would be needed to work on it. In total, more than 70 thousand people worked on it over the years to bring Linux to its current state. It was Linux that came out on top in 2012 in terms of use in smartphones; they use , which was created on the basis of the Linux kernel, specifically for mobile devices.

Advantages of Linux

Nowadays, Linux itself, as such, no longer exists, but there are other operating systems developed on its kernel. If you write in Cyrillic, then these are Fedora, Ubuntu and Android, these are the most popular and widespread systems on this moment. Worker example Linux desktop Fedora

First of all, of course, I would like to note one of its main advantages, that it is distributed free of charge. Therefore, if an enterprise installs Linux computers, then you don’t have to be afraid of any checks. No one will accuse you of using pirated software. Any are already available necessary programs running Linux for both work and play. We will not discuss to whom and why to distribute free programs.

Its second advantage is that Linux is open source. This doesn’t mean anything to many people, but I’ll try to explain it simply. Let's take Windows, after writing the kernel of this system, the code is closed and it is impossible to open it, so it is impossible to change anything in Windows. Of course, we can change the design to some extent, but we won’t be able to get inside Windows. With Linux the situation is different, its code is open, so if you have programming knowledge, you can experiment, modifying and improving the system.

A couple more advantages and small disadvantages

Here are some more advantages and disadvantages of Linux. Firstly, safety, what it is, is

that viruses that constantly surf the Internet in search of an unprotected computer do not have any effect on this system.

For example, if a virus gets into a Windows computer, then all folders on all disks will soon become infected. The system, and in most cases can only save full formatting entire disk. With Linux it is a little different, it is not distributed across folders, and therefore cannot harm the system.

Secondly, this is the availability of software for Windows, the further you go, the harder it is to find a good working one free program. Licensed ones are very expensive, but free ones are no good. With Linux, the opposite is true: new programs appear, absolutely free, and in quality and functionality, often superior to their counterparts developed for Windows. And installation of programs is simplified: by going to the distribution website, you select several programs, type the desired line in command line, and the installation began.

I would also like to note the speed of Linux, its design is simplified, so the system works much better faster than Windows. Of course, if a person prefers luxurious design, or has the opportunity to buy a supercomputer, then he may not like Linux. This system behaves well on budget models and computers, it is not demanding and therefore fast.

The only disadvantage of this system is that it is somewhat late in releasing drivers for the equipment. Time moves forward, everything is updated, first of all, professional programmers create drivers for Windows 7, and then for Linux. This is mainly connected with commerce; in the first option you can make good money, and the second option is free. But, in the near future, this state of affairs will be corrected. Other disadvantages of this system are also mentioned, but most of them are far-fetched, and in the end, each user decides for himself what to choose.

Understanding file Linux systems, directory structure, placement of configuration, executable and temporary files will help you better understand your system and become a successful system administrator. The Linux file system will be unusual for a beginner who has just switched from Windows, because everything here is completely different. Unlike Windows, the program is not located in one folder, but, as a rule, is distributed along the root file system. This distribution is subject to certain rules. Have you ever wondered why some programs are located in /bin, or /sbin, /usr/sbin, /usr/local/bin, what is the difference between these directories?

For example, the less program is located in the /usr/bin directory, but why not in /sbin or /usr/sbin. And programs such as ifconfig or fdisk are located in the /sbin directory and nowhere else.

This article will completely cover the structure of the Linux file system, after reading it you will be able to understand the meaning of using most folders in root directory Linux.

/ - root

This is the main directory on a Linux system. Essentially, this is what it is file system Linux. There are no disks or anything like that in Windows. Instead, all file addresses start at the root, and additional sections, flash drives or optical discs are connected to the folders of the root directory.

Note that the root user has a home directory of /root, but not / itself.

/bin - (binaries) user binary files

This directory contains executable files. Here are programs that can be used in single-user mode or recovery mode. In a word, those utilities that can be used are not yet connected to the /usr/ directory. These are like this general commands, like cat, ls, tail, ps, etc.

/sbin - (system binaries) system executable files

Like /bin, it contains binary executable files that are available during the early stages of boot, when the /usr directory is not mounted. But there are programs here that can only be executed with superuser rights. These are different utilities for system maintenance. For example, iptables, reboot, fdisk, ifconfig, swapon, etc.

/etc - (etcetera) configuration files

This folder contains configuration files of all programs installed on the system.

Except configuration files, in system initialization Init Scripts, here are scripts for starting and ending system daemons, mounting file systems, and starting programs. The linux directory structure in this folder may be a little confusing, but the purpose of all of them is setup and configuration.

/dev - (devices) device files

Everything in Linux, including external devices are files. Thus, all connected flash drives, keyboards, microphones, cameras are just files in the /dev/ directory. This directory contains an unusual file system. The Linux file system structure and the files contained in the /dev folder are initialized when the system boots, by the udev service. All connected devices are scanned and created for them. special files. These are devices such as: /dev/sda, /dev/sr0, /dev/tty1, /dev/usbmon0, etc.

/proc - (proccess) information about processes

This is also an unusual file system, but a subsystem dynamically created by the kernel. Here you can find all the information about running processes in real time. Essentially, it is a pseudo-file system containing detailed information about each process, its Pid, ​​name of the executable file, launch parameters, access to random access memory and so on. You can also find information about how to use it here. system resources, for example /proc/cpuinfo, /proc/meminfo or /proc/uptime. In addition to the files in this directory there is a large structure of Linux folders, from which you can find out a lot of information about the system.

/var (variable) - Variable files

The name of the /var directory is self-explanatory; it should contain files that change frequently. The size of these files is constantly increasing. This contains system log files, various caches, databases, and so on. Next we will look at the purpose of the Linux directories in the /var/ folder.

/var/log - Log files

/var/lib - databases

Another type modified files- these are database files, packages saved package manager etc.

/var/mail - mail

To this folder mail server adds up all received or sent emails, its logs and configuration files may also be located here.

/var/spool - printer

Initially, this folder was responsible for print queues on the printer and the operation of the cpus set of programs.

/var/lock - lock files

This is where the lock files are located. These files indicate that a particular resource, file, or device is in use and cannot be used by another process. Apt-get, for example, locks its database so that other programs cannot use it while the program is running on it.

/var/run - PID of processes

Contains files with Process PIDs, which can be used for interaction between programs. Unlike the /run directory, data is saved after reboot.

/tmp (temp) - Temporary files

This directory contains temporary files created by the system, any programs or users. All users have write permission to this directory.

The files are deleted every time you reboot. An analogue of Windows is the Windows\Temp folder; all temporary files are also stored here.

/usr - (user applications) User programs

This is the largest catalog with many features. This is the largest Linux directory structure. Here you can find executable files, program sources, various application resources, pictures, music and documentation.

/usr/bin/ - Executable files

Contains executable files various programs, which are not needed during the first stages of system boot, for example, music players, graphic editors, browsers and so on.

/usr/sbin/

Contains binary files programs for system administration, which must be executed with superuser rights. For example, such as Gparted, sshd, useradd, userdel, etc.

/usr/lib/ - Libraries

Contains libraries for programs from /usr/bin or /usr/sbin.

/usr/local - User files

Contains files of programs, libraries, and settings created by the user. For example, programs compiled and installed from source and scripts written manually can be stored here.

/home - Home folder

This folder stores the home directories of all users. They can store their personal files, program settings, etc. For example, /home/sergiy, etc. If compared with Windows, this is your user folder on drive C, but unlike WIndows, home is usually located on separate section, so when you reinstall the system, all your data and program settings will be saved.

/boot - Bootloader files

Contains all files associated with the system boot loader. This is the vmlinuz kernel, the initrd image, as well as the bootloader files located in the /boot/grub directory.

/lib (library) - System libraries

Contains system library files that are used by executable files in the /bin and /sbin directories.

Libraries have file names with a *.so extension and begin with the lib* prefix. For example, libncurses.so.5.7. Folder /lib64 in 64 bit systems contains 64-bit versions of libraries from /lib. This folder can be compared with WIndows\system32, all the system libraries are also downloaded there, only there they are mixed with executable files, but here everything is separate.

/opt (Optional applications) - Additional programs

Proprietary programs, games or drivers are installed in this folder. These are programs created as separate executable files by the manufacturers themselves. Such programs are installed in sub-directories /opt/, they are very similar to Windows programs, all executable files, libraries and configuration files are located in one folder.

/mnt (mount) - Mounting

To this catalog system administrators can mount external or additional file systems.

/media - Removable media

The system mounts all connected external drives - USB flash drives, optical discs and other storage media.

/srv (server) - Server

This directory contains server and service files. For example, it may contain files from the apache web server.

/run - processes

Another directory containing process PID files, similar to /var/run, but unlike it, it is located in TMPFS, and therefore all files are lost after a reboot.

/sys (system) - System information

The purpose of the Linux directories from this folder is to obtain information about the system directly from the kernel. This is another file system organized by the kernel and allows you to view and change many system operating parameters, for example, swap operation, control fans and much more.

A user who just wants to get acquainted with operating systems based on the Linux kernel can easily get lost in the assortment of various distribution kits. Their abundance is associated with the open source code of the kernel, so developers around the world are diligently adding to the ranks of already known operating systems. This article will discuss the most popular of them.

In fact, the variety of distributions is only beneficial. If you understand the distinctive features of certain operating systems, you will be able to choose the system that is perfect for your computer. Weak PCs receive a particular advantage. By installing a distribution kit for weak hardware, you will be able to use a full-fledged OS that will not load your computer and at the same time provide all the necessary software.

To try out one of the distributions presented below, just download the ISO image from the official website, burn it to a USB drive and start the computer from the flash drive.

If the manipulation of writing an ISO image of the operating system to a drive seems complicated to you, then you can read the manual on our website Linux installation on virtual machine.

Ubuntu

Ubuntu is rightfully considered the most popular distribution based on the Linux kernel in the CIS. It was developed on the basis of another distribution - Debian, however appearance there is no similarity between them. By the way, users often have disputes about which distribution is better: Debian or Ubuntu, but everyone agrees on one thing - Ubuntu is great for beginners.

Developers systematically release updates that improve or correct its shortcomings. It is distributed free of charge online, including both security updates and enterprise versions.

The advantages include:

  • simple and easy installer;
  • a large number of thematic forums and articles on configuration;
  • Unity user interface, which differs from the usual Windows, but is intuitive;
  • large volume pre-installed applications(, games, Flash plugin and many other software);
  • has a large amount of software both in internal and external repositories.

Linux Mint

Although Linux Mint is a separate distribution, it is based on Ubuntu. This is the second most popular product and is also great for beginners. Has more pre-installed software than the previous OS. Linux Mint is almost identical to Ubuntu in terms of internal system aspects that are hidden from the user's eyes. The graphical interface is more similar to Windows, which undoubtedly tempts users to choose this operating system.

The advantages of Linux Mint are the following:

  • It is possible to select when loading graphical shell systems;
  • during installation, the user receives not only software with free source code, but also proprietary programs that can provide optimal performance video-audio files and Flash elements;
  • developers improve the system by periodically releasing updates and fixing bugs.

CentOS

As the CentOS developers themselves say, their main goal is to make a free and, importantly, stable OS for various organizations and enterprises. Therefore, by installing this distribution, you will receive a system that is stable and protected in all respects. However, the user should prepare and study the CentOS documentation, since it differs quite significantly from other distributions. From the main thing: the syntax of most commands is different, as are the commands themselves.

The advantages of CentOS are the following:

  • has many functions that ensure system security;
  • includes only stable versions applications, which reduces the risk of critical errors and other types of failures;
  • Enterprise-level security updates are released to the OS.

openSUSE

openSUSE is a good option for a netbook or low-power computer. This operating system has an official wiki website, a user portal, a service for developers, projects for designers, and IRC channels in several languages. Among other things, the openSUSE team sends emails to users when updates or other important events happen.

The advantages of this distribution are as follows:

  • It has big number Software delivered through . True, there is somewhat less of it than in Ubuntu;
  • has a KDE graphical shell, which is in many ways similar to Windows;
  • has flexible settings performed using the YaST program. With its help, you can change almost all parameters, from wallpaper to settings of internal system components.

Pinguy OS

Pinguy OS was developed with the goal of making a system that was simple and beautiful. It is intended for the average user who decides to switch from Windows, which is why you can find many familiar functions in it.

The operating system is based on the Ubuntu distribution. There are both 32-bit and 64-bit versions. Pinguy OS has a large set of programs with which you can perform almost any action on your PC. For example, turn the standard top panel Gnome is dynamic, like Mac OS.

Zorin OS

Zorin OS is another system target audience which are beginners who want to switch from Windows to Linux. This OS is also based on Ubuntu, but its interface has much in common with Windows.

However, the distinguishing feature of Zorin OS is the package of pre-installed applications. As a result, you will immediately be able to run most games and Windows programs thanks to Wine program. You will also be pleased with the pre-installed one, which is the default browser in this OS. And for lovers graphic editors there is (analogue). Additional Applications the user can download it themselves using Zorin Web Browser Manager is a kind of analogue to .

Manjaro Linux

Manjaro Linux is based on ArchLinux. The system is very easy to install and allows the user to start working immediately after installing the system. Both 32-bit and 64-bit OS versions are supported. The repositories are constantly synchronized with ArchLinux, so users are among the first to receive new versions of the software. The distribution has everything immediately after installation necessary tools for interaction with multimedia content and third-party equipment. Manjaro Linux supports several kernels, including rc.

Solus

Solus is not the best the best option For weak computers. At least because this distribution has only one version - 64-bit. However, in return, the user will receive a beautiful graphical shell, with flexible settings, many tools for work and reliability in use.

It is also worth noting that Solus uses great manager eopkg, which offers standard tools to install/remove packages and search for them.

Elementary OS

The Elementary OS distribution is based on Ubuntu and is a great starting point for beginners. Interesting design, which is very similar to OS X, a large amount of software - this and much more will be acquired by the user who installs this distribution. Distinctive feature This OS is that most of the applications that come with it are developed specifically for this project. Because of this, they are ideally comparable to general structure systems, which is why the OS runs much faster than Ubuntu. In addition, thanks to this, all the elements are perfectly combined in appearance.

Conclusion

It is difficult to objectively say which of the presented distributions is better and which is somewhat worse, just as it is impossible to force someone to install Ubuntu or Mint on their computer. Everything is individual, so the decision about which distribution to start using is up to you.

Linux- the general name for UNIX-like operating systems based on the kernel of the same name and libraries and system programs compiled for it, developed within the GNU project.
GNU/Linux runs on PC-compatible systems Intel family x86, as well as on IA-64, AMD64, PowerPC, ARM and many others.

The GNU/Linux operating system also often includes programs that complement this operating system, and application programs, making it a full-fledged multifunctional operating environment. Unlike most other operating systems, GNU/Linux does not have a single “official” package. Instead, GNU/Linux comes in large quantities so-called distributions, in which GNU programs connect with Linux kernel and other programs.

Development

    Unlike Microsoft Windows, Mac OS and commercial UNIX-like systems,GNU/Linux does not have a geographical development center. There is no organization that owns this system; There is not even a single coordination center. Programs for Linux are the result of the work of thousands of projects. Some of these projects are centralized, some are concentrated in firms. Many projects bring together hackers from all over the world who only know each other through correspondence. Anyone can create their own project or join an existing one and, if successful, the results of the work will become known to millions of users. Users take part in testing free software and communicate directly with developers, which allows them to quickly find and fix errors and implement new features.

    It is precisely such a flexible and dynamic development system that is impossible for projects with closed code, defines the exceptional cost-effectiveness of GNU/Linux. Low cost of free development, well-established testing and distribution mechanisms, attracting people from different countries with different visions of problems, code protection under the GPL license - all this became the reason for the success of free software.

    Of course, such high development efficiency could not help but interest large companies, which began to open their own projects. This is how Mozilla (Netscape, AOL), OpenOffice.org (Sun), a free clone of Interbase (Borland) - Firebird, SAP DB (SAP) appeared. IBM helped bring GNU/Linux to its mainframes.

    On the other side, open source significantly reduces development costs closed systems for GNU/Linux and allows you to reduce the price of the solution for the user. This is why GNU/Linux has become the platform often recommended for products such as Oracle, DB2, Informix, SyBase, SAP R3, Domino.

GNU/Linux distributions

Most users use distribution kits to install GNU/Linux. A distribution is not just a set of programs, but a series of solutions for different tasks users united unified systems installation, management and updates of packages, configuration and support.

    The most common distributions in the world:

    Ubuntu

    A distribution that quickly gained popularity, focused on ease of learning and use.

    openSUSE

    A free version of the SuSE distribution owned by Novell. It is easy to configure and maintain thanks to the YaST utility.

    Fedora

    Maintained by the community and RedHat Corporation, predates commercial releases of RHEL.

    Debian

    An international distribution developed by a large community of developers for non-commercial purposes. Served as the basis for the creation of many other distributions. It has a strict approach to the inclusion of proprietary software.

    Mandriva

    French-Brazilian distribution, a merger of the former Mandrake and Conectiva.

    Slackware

    One of the oldest distributions, it is distinguished by a conservative approach to development and use.

    Gentoo

    A distribution package compiled from source codes. Allows for very flexible customization final system and optimize performance, which is why it often calls itself a meta-distribution. Aimed at experts and experienced users.

    Archlinux

    Application-oriented latest versions programs and constantly updated, supporting both binary and source installations equally and built on the KISS philosophy of simplicity (Keep it simple, stupid), this distribution is aimed at competent users who want to have everything the power and modifiability of Linux, without sacrificing maintenance time.

In addition to those listed, there are many other distributions, both based on those listed and created from scratch and often designed to perform limited quantity tasks.

Each of them has its own concept, its own set of packages, its own advantages and disadvantages. Not one can satisfy all users, and therefore, next to the leaders, there are other companies and associations of programmers, offering their solutions, their distributions, their services. There are many LiveCDs built on GNU/Linux, such as Knoppix. LiveCD allows you to run GNU/Linux directly from the CD, without installing to HDD. Most major distributions, including Ubuntu, can be used as a LiveCD.

For those who want to thoroughly understand GNU/Linux, any of the distributions is suitable, but quite often so-called “source-based” distributions are used for this purpose, that is, they assume self-assembly all components from source code, such as LFS, Gentoo or CRUX.

Application

The distribution area of ​​Linux is enormous, much larger than that of all other operating systems. In addition to the fact that Linux works great on ordinary home and work computers and servers, there are Linux adaptations to most modern processors, which allows the use of systems with the Linux kernel in network equipment, smart home appliances, robots, mobile phones, various portable devices and other equipment that supports programmable operations.

Ultimately, such a wide range of supported devices means superior software portability. For example, the same application can often be launched with minimal effort and on regular computer, and on mobile phone on Linux based. For example: Windows and its little brother Windows Mobile are completely incompatible platforms.


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