How Linux works: from pressing the power button to the desktop. Why does this need a separate course? Checking Equipment Specifications

Even at the stage of preliminary study of the Linux system (stage: what is Linux and how to approach it), the user encounters such a term as Terminal. It scares some people away, but for others, on the contrary, it makes them want to try it.

Illustration linuxformat.com

Hello! I'm Anatoly Guslyakov, moderator of the Comss.ru website. Starting today, we are opening a series of interesting topics under the general title “Learning Linux Together.” Discussion topics will be in the form of articles or messages, which will cover various materials on the study of Ubuntu and its derivative systems. The material will be posted not only by the administration of the resource, but also by users who want to share their knowledge (it is personal knowledge that is interesting, without copy-paste from third-party resources). If voluminous topics will be posted, you must first discuss them with the resource administration; perhaps the proposed topic will be published as a separate article.

The goal is to learn the basics of Linux systems. The technique is probably not entirely ordinary, there will be no teachers, or rather, each user taking part will be a teacher. We will share our knowledge openly in a good-natured and warm atmosphere. Each topic of discussion (lesson) will end with practical consolidation of new knowledge on your system and comments with screenshots.

Let's start the first discussion!

Terminal and useful commands

Even at the stage of preliminary study of the Linux system (stage: what is Linux and how to approach it), the user encounters such a term as Terminal. It scares some people away, while others, on the contrary, have a desire to try it (why not try yourself as a programmer? 🙂).

What is Linux

There, on the Internet, we find information among user comments that it turns out that this thing is used to manage the entire system, install programs, correct errors, and generally do everything with its help.

The terminal is a graphical program that emulates a console, the user documentation from the site help.ubuntu.ru tells us.

All terminal commands also work in the console. The console works without a graphical shell and is usually necessary when there are problems starting the system.

So what is Terminal? The terminal is a tool that allows you to control the system directly, and also allows you to see any of our actions performed in any graphical program and in the system as a whole, that is, the user opening any folder and opening any program, at the same moment occur in as commands in the terminal.

Examples of the most popular commands (the terminal can be launched using hotkeys: Ctrl+Alt+T):

(package index update)

(direct program update)

Let's look at the components of the command:

• sudo - run command with administrator rights (after entering it, you must enter the administrator password, the password itself is not visible, but don’t be afraid, enter it and then press the enter key);
• apt-get is powerful tool for installing and updating packages;
• update — updating the list of packages, upgrade — updating the packages themselves.

- program installation;

— deleting the program;

It is best to install programs by adding their repositories; this will make it possible to further automatically update the program, after first checking that the program is not in the Ubuntu Application Center (this way we check if this repository is not connected to us).

For most commands, you can get help by typing the additional command --help after the command.

And finally a few interesting teams:

— the command displays the version of the Linux kernel;

— list of active network connections;

- good mood team

Popular terminal emulators

As it turns out, there are various terminal emulators. Each of them is interesting in its own way.

Let's look at the most popular terminal emulators:

Guake— a drop-down terminal reminiscent of the console from the popular game Quake. The terminal is loaded into memory, so calling the terminal is faster than a standard terminal. Available in the Ubuntu repository, so you can install it from the Ubuntu Application Center.

Final term— “smart” terminal emulator. Remembers the entered commands and offers them in a drop-down menu the next time you type them. Like most terminal emulators, Final term supports hotkeys, but through editing the settings file. Unfortunately, it froze during review, but there is an explanation for that, Final term long time does not leave the alpha testing stage.

Let's move on to installation. At the time of writing this article, the program repository was not working, so we will install it from the source code. The additional Git tool that we will install to install Final term will be useful in the future for installing other programs.

(required quite popular tools)

(additional packages for GTK)

(download sources)

(let's move onVfolderfinalterm)

(createfolderbuild)

(let's move onVfolderbuild)

(a tool for automatically building a program from source code)

(direct installation)

Terminator is a cross-platform terminal emulator that supports Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, Linux, Unix X11 systems. A convenient terminal emulator that allows you to create horizontal and vertical tabs, customize the interface display, many hotkeys and connect additional plugins.

You can install from the Ubuntu Application Center.

RXVT (color terminal with unicode support) is a very lightweight terminal emulator. I didn't find any settings. Its minimalism is similar to the built-in XTerm, but RXVT removes some features, such as Tektronix 4014 emulation and tool-style configuration.

Available in the native Ubuntu repository.

Well, for those who continue to use the standard Terminal, I suggest you decorate it a little with a picture, for example, a penguin named Tux (the official mascot of Linux).

Have a great mood everyone. See you in the discussion of the topic.

Comments and reviews

When adding a comment, please read the Community Guidelines

This article will talk about mastering the Linux OS. Other UNIX similar systems, such as FreeBSD, AIX and Solaris, we will touch on in the next article.

First of all, you need to be patient and willing to learn new things. There will be a lot of new things, especially if you have not encountered the console before. The first thing you need to start with is choosing a distribution, and don’t rush to install Ubuntu, it will be of no use at all. I assure you that by installing it you will not master the console, Ubuntu is too friendly.

Paths of learning

The hard way

My learning experience began with Gentoo - it is difficult, tedious, interesting and gives a great experience. If you have a lot of time and desire to study how operating systems on the Linux kernel work, go ahead. Another distribution that will give you experience is Slackware. There is no point in studying both; it is worth stopping at one. They are similar in complexity, but Gentto is difficult to install and works with the best software installer - Portage, and Slackware has some difficulties with normal package installers.

Normal way

In industrial applications you are unlikely to see Gentoo or Slackware, most likely you will see Red Hat Enterprise Linux, Centos or sometimes Debian, less often these will be derivative distributions on rpm packages (OpenSuse). Actually, they need to be studied in a good way.

Useless way

In industrial use you won't find Fedora, Ubuntu or other custom distributions. And in general I don’t recommend starting to study with them, they are not for servers. Fedora, for example, may stop working after an update, and Ubuntu may freeze, but then the next update comes and the bug is fixed. Now I'm faced with 16.04, no, it's not worth it.

How to study

First you need to install the selected distribution, preferably on real hardware. After installation (and if this is a Gentoo distribution in the process), configure the kernel for your hardware, this will give you an understanding of how the kernel is assembled and why. You will remember what the lspci and lsusb commands do, and many others. This will also allow you to master working in the console. It is best if you have an operating system on your computer for everyday use.

Errors

Collecting materials

Don't do this, you won't read any of the downloaded books. Very often, people starting to study something download “100 books on Linux”.

How Linux beginners can start using the Linux terminal

Don't repeat this mistake.

Courses

No. If you go to a course for 50,000 rubles, this does not mean that they will teach you something. The only thing you will take away from them is a diploma. And yes, no one will care about him.

Perhaps the article will be filled with more, I don’t know yet.

Learning commands

Wastes a lot of time and is of little use, to put it briefly.

Conclusion

Only practice and experience in using the operating system will allow you to successfully use it and apply it in life. Over time, you will learn a lot, you will even encounter situations where Linux cannot be used, but only Windows.

Learn new things every day, it's useful.

The operation of the computer from the moment you press the power button until the system returns to normal operation is called booting. Bootstrap happens in two stages: first it loads core operating system, which then configures itself and starts system services.

The first stage - loading the kernel - does not depend on the type of operating system. Selecting the device from which to download ( HDD, laser disc, disk drive), execute routines from the computer ROM - BIOS. Searches for the system kernel (possibly several) and configures kernel parameters loader, located on the device selected for downloading. Neither one nor the other needs additional configuration until a problem arises. an emergency situation. The loader (LInux LOader, LILO) recognizes several boot methods and several options for configuring the kernel, so at startup it offers to choose one option from several. From the LILO menu, select "linux-up".

The system boots automatically based on the parameters passed by the bootloader and information received during self-configuration. Each system service, when started, displays console diagnostics (“ready”), (“skipped”) and (“failure”). If everything is in order, all messages should look like this. Messages occur when the system decides that this service there is no reason to launch it: for example, when trying to load a driver for a non-existent device. The message means that the system service could not be started for some reason.

The messages do not indicate that the operating system is “corrupt,” but rather that the computer’s settings or environment have changed in an unexpected way. For example, if the system is configured to receive network address automatically, but the server issuing addresses is not on the network, the network service will display a message, and the system will continue to boot normally. You can monitor the system load by examining system logs, first of all, the one issued by the command dmesg.

In the process of work several are active virtual consoles. Each virtual console is accessible by clicking Alt and a function key with the number of this console. Yes, in ALT Linux after When the system boots, the functions of the system console are taken over by the 12th virtual console ( Alt—F12). If the X11 graphics subsystem is running, it occupies the seventh console, and to switch to text mode, the described keys must be pressed together with Ctrl: Ctrl—Alt—F1, CtrlAltF2 etc.

it is forbidden turn it off by simply depriving the computer of power. The system keeps a lot of information that should be located on the disk. random access memory to improve performance. An unexpected power outage results in the loss of this information. You can stop the system using the command shutdown -h now. This will first stop system services, then unmount file systems, and then (if possible) shut down the computer. If software shutdown is not possible, a corresponding message will be displayed on the screen and the power can be turned off with the button Power.

If the computer supports the ACPI protocol, pressing the button Power does not turn off the power, but rather sends an ACPI message to the system that the button Power was pressed. When receiving such a message, the system performs the same actions as shutdown. Only in this case acceptable switch off with button Power.

The third option is to press on the keyboard Ctrl—Alt—Del, after which the system will go to reboot(stop and reboot immediately). These keys do not have any intrinsic effect on the system; such a reaction is a kernel property that can be disabled. After waiting for the download to begin (for example, the LILO menu), you can turn off the computer.

Stopping the system and turning off the computer

Turning your computer on and off

In exists exactly one a user whose rights are significantly higher than the rights of other users of the system. It is called ("root"), or superuser. It corresponds to an account with name and user ID 0. To perform administrative actions, you must register in the system under this name. It is not recommended to perform any other work, except administrative work, on behalf of the user, since the cost of an error increases several times.

Per superuser no access restrictions apply files, so the right to exercise privileges requires great ethical and professional responsibility. This means that the superuser password must be known only person responsible in every sense. Better don't write down superuser password, and if such a need arises, keep the records in an inaccessible place, for example, in a safe.

For temporary perform actions with rights there is a command su —. Only group members (“steering wheel”) can execute this command. Group membership is determined by the contents of the file. In cases where you only need to transfer to the user Part permissions, it is recommended to use the sudo package.

You can add a new user using the command useradd login_name with optional additional parameters. The result of this command can be quite different depending on the account storage scheme. ALT Linux uses the TCB scheme, in which when adding a new account, a new line is added to the file, a new subdirectory and a shadow file in it. For compatibility with other schemes, it can contain only Latin letters, numbers and underscores. You can use a key to set the user's full name.

Either the user himself or a superuser can change a user's password. Do not set a password that is easy to guess or guess! ALT Linux has a fairly strict password checking system. This scheme distinguishes between lowercase and uppercase Latin letters, numbers, and other symbols.

Newbie about Linux. FAQ

A good password should be no shorter than eight characters, contain at least three types of characters, and capital letters at the beginning and the numbers at the end do not count. So, for example, a password is considered weak, but a password is considered strong.

Of course, the password should not include English words. However, if these words are not less than three and they are not only separated by spaces, the password - such as - is also considered strong. When you enter your password, nothing is displayed on the screen. Example:

teacher# useradd -c “Aksyon Vikulovich Ommetrov” axen teacher# passwd axen Enter new password: Re-type new password: passwd: all authentication tokens updated successfully.

You can delete a user's account, home directory, and mailbox using the command userdel -r login_name. If omitted, the home directory and mailbox are not deleted.

To change the settings of an existing account, use the utility usermod. In particular usermod -L login_name temporarily prohibits the use of the relevant account, and usermod -U login_name— cancels the ban.

Direct installation and removal of software products ( packages) in ALT Linux is handled by the rpm utility. However, it is inconvenient for an administrator to use because most packages cannot work properly unless some others are installed on the system, so they must be installed first. Those, in turn, may depend on some other packages, and so on. The apt family of utilities solve this problem: when installing one package, all the packages on which it depends are also calculated, after which it is added to the system kit packages required for work.

In addition, apt can take packages for installation from several sources. All sources are listed in the file. To add each distribution CD to the list of sources, use the command apt-cdrom add. Searching the sources for a package whose description contains a specific substring is carried out with the command apt-cache search. It is better not to perform the search on behalf of the superuser, since, for compatibility with system scripts, the user is set to only English interface language. To install a package on the system, use the command apt-get install package_name. Example:

teacher$ apt-cache search CDR cdda2wav - Utility for copying tracks from Audio CD cdrecord - Console utility for burning CD/DVD k3b - CD burning program mkisofs - Utility for creating ISO9660 images xcdroast - Graphics program to create a CD teacher$ su — Password: teacher# apt-get install xcdroast Reading Package Lists… Done Building Dependency Tree… Done The following extra packages will be installed: cdda2wav The following NEW packages will be installed: cdda2wav xcdroast 0 upgraded, 2 newly installed, 0 removed and 1 not upgraded. Need to get 0B/2056kB of archives. After unpacking 4749kB of additional disk space will be used. Do you want to continue? Get:1 cdrom://Junior2.3 ALT/main cdda2wav 5:2.0-alt4 Get:2 cdrom://Junior2.3 ALT/main xcdroast 6:0.98alpha15-alt2 Fetched 2056kB in 0s (11.8MB/s) Committing changes... Preparing... ############################################## ######## 1: cdda2wav ######################################## ################ [50%] 2: xcdroast ############################ ############################ Done.

To work with packages using GUI You can use the synaptic program.

When using a system with a profile, before performing any administrative actions, you must stop using the remote using a system script /etc/init.d/etcmount stop.

Installation of software products

If users' home directories (especially network directories) accumulate too many necessary files, there may not be enough space for the required files. Information on the fullness of file systems is displayed by the command df(disk free, free disk space). If the or field contains a zero or negative value, only the superuser is allowed to modify such a file system. It is recommended to identify which subdirectory contains the most unnecessary data and ask the owner to clean it up (or else do it by order, using superuser rights). To determine the size of directories, you can use the utility df.

Example of file system analysis:

teacher$df File system Size Use Access Use % mounted on /dev/hda1 2.3G 1.5G 728M 67% / /dev/hda3 1.5G 1.4G 48M 96% /home $ su — Password: # du —max-depth=1 / home/chroot/nethome 5.4M /home/chroot/nethome/alex 2.7G /home/chroot/nethome/greedy 4.0M /home/chroot/nethome/netuser 2.7G /home/chroot/nethome # du —max-depth= 1 -k /arc/home/george | sort -n | tail -4 25314 /home/chroot/nethome/greedy/Pass 56106 /home/chroot/nethome/greedy/.phoenix 2608536 /home/chroot/nethome/greedy/pictures 2764538 /home/chroot/nethome/greedy

In the above example, the obvious eater of free space is the owner of the directory (2.7 gigabytes) - most likely the user - with more than 2.5 gigabytes accounted for by a single subdirectory.

File systems full

The system installed and running on the machine needs to be updated only if updates correct security flaws (so-called security updates). In addition, an update may be required old system for compatibility with new file formats or network protocols. Update list packages are produced using the command apt-get update, and updating the system itself in accordance with the updated list - using apt-get dist-upgrade.

Linux: Linux basics

What is the course about?

The LINUX course for beginners will help you master it in a short time Ubuntu distribution, will give information about the entire family of Linux distributions. You will learn how to quickly and efficiently set up your server using only command line.

During the classes it will be suggested a large number of practical examples.

After completing the LINUX for Beginners course, you will gain the following knowledge and skills:

• Learn to install Linux.
• Learn console commands for Unix-like operating systems.
• Learn to manage system services Linux.
• Write small programs (scripts) using the BASH command interpreter
• Read and understand system logs, configure the logging service.
• Run WINDOWS applications on Linux using the wine emulator

Knowledge of LINUX will help you create and maintain high-performance and reliable servers. Servers that can work as in local network, and on the Internet

Linux operating system is a worthy analogue of Windows. If you have not worked in its environment before, then you should take into account several nuances that are unique to it.
During the registration procedure in the Linux operating system, it automatically performs the following operations:
the process begins as standard with checking the user login and password;
then the entire palette of the set consisting of environment variables is defined;
This process is completed by launching the command interpreter. This is what is called the operating system shell.
The majority of Linux distributions use two types of shells by default:
sh;
bash.
In fact, the palette of shells is much wider, but they are used much less frequently than those described above. Changing the default one is not difficult, and you can simply run it using the command line.
A command in the Linux operating system is a string of characters. It consists of the command name and required arguments, separated by spaces. Arguments allow a command to use additional parameters that dictate its behavior. For example, here is a standard command:
echo 12345
A chain of characters 12345 will appear on the screen, which are the argument of this command.
Commands that are part of the shell itself are defined as built-ins. They are:
are common;
specific.
General ones are common to any . Specific ones will not work within a non-native OS.
There is a whole range of commands that are independent of the current shell. They are sold as separate software modules, which are standard only for the Linux distribution you choose. Arguments can also be options or keys. These character strings consist of a dash and one or more symbols. An example is the following:
ls -l
Keys allow you to combine different arguments. As a result, you will receive identical commands:
ls -l -d
ls -ld
Working on the Linux command line requires strict adherence to a number of rules that are relevant only in the information environment of this operating system:
Lowercase and uppercase letters are different characters for Linux. On Windows, the TEMP directory and the Temp directory are the same, on Linux they are not. These rules apply to everything: commands, their keys, usernames, passwords, etc. Console commands:
ps -a
And
ps-A
will give you different results;
By entering the –help switch on the command line you can get help on most commands:
1. ps –help: will give you help for the ps command, it is she who owns complete information and works with a complete list of processes you have launched;
2. built-in help system man – will provide additional help;
3. man ps - will display the complete ps command on the screen;
don't forget that the result individual programs directly depends on your rights within the OS. The su command is responsible in the operating system root rights use. It is responsible for changing the user in the current session with the OS. If the user is not specified, then root is automatically selected.
For all Linux OS users great help mc file manager will provide. This is an analogue of FAR or Norton Commander. Currently, this useful module is included in all Linux distributions. There is one thing: it is not installed by default everywhere. It will help you solve many recurring problems.
Displaying information on the screen in Linux OS also has its own characteristics. Let's look at the main ones:
if the text has gone off the screen, you can easily correct the position using the key combination SHIFT and PAGE UP or PAGE DOWN;
if you want to pause the display of information on the screen – CTRL-S;
if suspension is required, cancel – CTRL-Q;
if you need to display a large amount of text in page-by-page mode, then use the less command, which is added to the main command:
we have in stock text file mytxt is 12 screens wide. To standardly display text on the screen, you can use the cat command< имя файла>
cat mytxt
After executing this command, you will see text flash quickly and
the last (twelfth) output screen. You can apply keyboard shortcuts
SHIFT-PAGEDOUN or SHIFT-PAGEUP to view text, but you can
take advantage of and less. We get the chain:
cat mytxt | less
Symbol | means combining the command for issuing text cat and the control command into a chain of execution page-by-page output less. After the first page of text is displayed on the screen, output will be paused until PAGE DOWN or ENTER is pressed. The last combination will result in page movement;
The Q key is responsible for completing page output.
Linux allows you to chain multiple commands. If you want to display in page mode all lines containing the word mail. To search you can use the command
grep<строка поиска>
We get an alliance of three teams:
cat mytxt | grep mail | less
Many Linux distributions allow you to use more instead of less.
If you need to use several distributions at the same time, then there are key combinations assigned for switching: CTRL - ALT - F1...F6. To go to the graphical shell, feel free to press CTRL-ALT-F7.
If you need to start a second graphical server in Linux OS on one computer, use the startx 1 -- :1 command.
The combination Alt+F8 is responsible for going to the second graphic terminal, and Alt+F7 returns to the first. Linux allows you to work with up to 64 graphic terminals at a time (startx 2 -- :2, etc.).
exit will end the current terminal session.
Linux allows you to create a special log of the current console session. It will print everything that you entered during a separate session. You can check what was entered via the keyboard and what was ultimately displayed on the screen.
Used next command:
script< имя файла журнала >
exit will stop logging.
If you need to shut down or restart your computer in Linux OS, then this procedure can be done in different ways:
shutdown: it boasts a wide range of options, allowing you to:
1. quick reboot without checking the file system;
2. reboot procedure at the required time;
3. simulate and cancel an already running or previously postponed reboot process;
shutdown --help will display the entire list of options;
restart will reboot the OS immediately:
shutdown -r now;
halt – power off:
shutdown -h now.
For the majority of distributions there are a number of short commands:
reboot – reboot;
halt – shutdown;
init – changes the current OS run level with the command responsible for starting and ending processes in Linux; developed for the same purposes special scripts. They are stored in /etc/inittab. Level 0 will provide a shutdown, and level 6 will reboot. Respectively:
to turn off:
init 0;
to reboot:
init 6;
init is also used to change the OS run level. Let's look at the levels in more detail:
1 – single-user mode. Access is granted to the root user;
2 – multi-user mode without support for network functions;
3 – with network support;
4 – reserved;
5 – using a graphical shell.
init 3 will terminate the graphical shell. Eventually it will close and the system will go to runlevel 3. To return you need to enter:
init 5
The default runlevel is determined by initdefault from /etc/inittab. To start the system if you need to support a graphical shell, use the command:
id:5:initdefault:
If 5 is replaced with 3, then the graphical shell will not start when the system starts. Never set the default system startup level to values ​​between 0 and 6.
In Linux OS, you can view the list of tasks using the ps command. Without specifying parameters, it will display a list of processes running during the current session. ps --help will output a full list of options as standard.
Example:
List of all processes running in the system:
ps -A - will display a list of processes with identifiers (PIDs) and their names
or:
ps -ax - will give the same list of processes, but with the full launch line
list of tasks generated by user:
ps -U user
list of tasks associated with the current terminal:
PS T
list of tasks related to terminal N:
ps tttyN
If the list of tasks is large, and we are interested in the status of one or more tasks, we can use grep:
ps -U root | grep ppp - list tasks containing "ppp" in the name
top displays computer resource usage data on the screen.

The upper part of the window will tell you the summary of the system state:
current time;
time since system boot;
number of users in the system;
number of processes in different states;
Memory and CPU usage data.
Below is a table describing individual processes. The number of rows displayed in this table is determined by the size of the window. The contents of the window are updated every 3 seconds. Pressing the h key displays help for commands that allow you to change the format of the displayed data and control some process parameters in the system:
s or d - change the window refresh interval.
z - color/black and white display
n or # - number of processes displayed
You can sort the list of processes by CPU usage (P), memory usage (M), execution time (T), and so on.
However, there is more useful commands, which allow you to manage processes interactively:
k - kill the task. This command will ask for a process identifier (PID), after entering which the process will be terminated.
r - change the current task priority (renice). As with the previous command, the PID will be requested, and then the new priority value (displayed in the NI column). The range of priority values ​​is from minus 20 (highest) to plus 19. Negative values ​​and 0 can only be set by the root user.
To exit top press q
kill command
You can forcefully terminate a process and change its priority without the top command.
Processes in Linux allow you to exchange "signals" with the kernel and other processes. When a process receives a signal, the control runs a subroutine to process it. If it is not there, then either the kernel. Linux operates with a special kill command. It is this that makes it possible to send any signal to a given process. The list of signals can be obtained using the command:
kill -l
As a result of executing this command, you will see a list of signal numbers and names. Send a specific signal to the selected process using the command line input:
kill<-номерсигнала>PID number of the selected process
For example, we need to shut down the Midnight Commander (mc) application.
Let's define the process identifier mc:
ps -A | grep mc
Let PID= 11597.
We send the SIGQUIT signal (number 3):
kill -3 11597
After which the mc process will process the GIGQUIT signal and exit normally. However, if mc is stuck, then, naturally, it will not be able to complete, since the SIGQUIT signal processing subroutine will not receive control. In such cases, signal number 9 (SIGKILL) is used, processed by the operating system kernel, and forcefully terminating the specified process:
kill -9 11597
If the signal number is not specified in the kill command, then SIGKILL is used; the previous command could be entered as kill PID:
kill 11597
Terminating a process also terminates the processes running in it.
To terminate a process by name, use the killall command:
killall mc - kill a process whose name contains "mc";
killall -u user - kill processes spawned by user user.
The nice and renice commands change the priority of processes. When a process starts, its priority is set by the value of the parent process, such as an xterm terminal or a shell command shell. The nice command allows you to run a process with a priority equal to the sum of its parent (for example, 8) and the number specified as an option to the nice command:
nice -<число>team
nice -4 mc - will launch mc with priority = 8+4=12
The renice command is used to change the priority of an already running process:
renice<число>-p PID
renice 4 -p 11597 - set the priority value for the mc process (PID=11597) to 4.
Once executed, renice will produce the result line:
11597: old priority 12, new priority 4 - old priority 12, new priority 4
Setting a zero or negative priority number is only allowed for a user with root rights.

What's happened Ubuntu? Ubuntu is a modern, full-featured operating system based on the Linux kernel. Translated from the South African Zulu language, the word Ubuntu roughly means “humanity.”

Ubuntu is and will always be distributed absolutely free. But at the same time, installing Ubuntu on your computer you get full set all applications necessary for operation, and you can easily download everything missing from the standard package from the Internet. And there is no catch in this. You can use Ubuntu and all the software available on this system without any restrictions, absolutely free and on completely legal grounds. Moreover, you can even download the source code of all components of the system and make your own product based on it.

Ubuntu is supported and sponsored by Canonical, but a huge part of the development of this great OS comes from the community - ordinary people who strive to improve the applications and tools they use. Perhaps someday you will want to help make Ubuntu is the best operating system and take part in the community.

About the resource

The purpose of this resource is to help beginners install Ubuntu on their computer and get comfortable with this system. I will say right away that all articles are written on the assumption that the reader has some knowledge of computers and will be able to distinguish a file from a folder. Although you don’t need any specific knowledge - just general computer literacy.

This resource is a beginner's guide, so if you haven't used Ubuntu before, I recommend that you read each article in order. If you already know something about Ubuntu and Linux in general, perhaps something will seem familiar to you. In this case, you can read the articles at your own discretion; use the menu on the right to navigate. By the way, if you don't feel comfortable reading the manual online, you can download a PDF version.

This guide is by no means exhaustive, but is intended to help you ease into the world of Ubuntu. If you have any questions, please contact the official Russian-language forum, they will always help you there, in addition there is community-created in Russian, in it you can search for the missing information.

A short summary

So what can you learn from this guide? Well, first of all, I’ll tell you how to install Ubuntu on your computer - the only operating system or next to Windows. Next I'll touch a little user interface and basic system controls. And then I’ll try to cover all the necessary basics step by step. using Ubuntu. By the way, many articles contain quite a lot of footnotes. They contain Additional Information or simply various comments on the main content. You may well skip them while reading. They are not necessary for understanding the main material of the manual, but are often useful as clarification of some specific questions that you may have.

I’ll say right away that the manual contains virtually no descriptions of specific applications. There is one for Ubuntu great amount programs for every taste and color. And I would really like not to recommend anything specific, but to show you how to find and install exactly what you personally like and suits best.

In general, the purpose of this manual is to teach the reader how to use all the main tools of the system with ease and effectively. I really hope that after reading it, you will be able to work calmly in Ubuntu and easily perform all the actions you need.

The guide describes the long term support version of Ubuntu - Ubuntu 10.04 LTS "Lucid Lynx".

Modern versions of Ubuntu are very different from Lucid Lynx in terms of user interface and pre-installed programs, so this guide is practically irrelevant for them.

For older versions there may also be slight differences from what is described in the articles, but the general provisions will remain the same. However, I recommend that you always use the latest version of Ubuntu. In the first article I will tell you where you can get your copy of the distribution.

You've heard of Linux, but only recently realized that this free and open source operating system is something you can actually use. It's not difficult to install, has a lot of great applications, and will extend the life of your computers. Today, Linux provides a decent opportunity to play games. Yes, you understood correctly. You don't need to have a thorough understanding of Linux, you just need someone to hold your hand as you get started.

I hear you and I'm here to help.

What is Linux?

If you are new to Linux, you can make a general assumption that it is an operating system. This is not entirely true. Linux is actually the kernel, the center of the operating system. The kernel allows software (what you see on the screen) to communicate with hardware (what you touch with your hands). Without a kernel, your system cannot function.

So when you say Linux, you are most often referring to any operating system based on the Linux kernel, such as Ubuntu or Fedora. As a kernel, Linux doesn't do anything on its own. He needs someone to link and distribute it with all the software needed to produce the final result. When this happens, the resulting Linux operating system becomes known as a distribution (or “distro”).

What makes Linux different from others?

How is the Linux kernel different? Like most applications that run on it, the kernel is actively supported by the free and open source software (FOSS) community.

Open source software doesn't cost money, and anyone can look at the source code and change it as they wish. This means experienced developers from all over the world contribute their work either for free or through sponsorship from companies like Canonical or Red Hat. However, you can also improve the software.

In contrast, the Windows source code is not available to anyone except Microsoft employees, and it is a criminal offense to decompile or reverse engineer it. You can't create your own Windows kernel, fix bugs, or distribute an improved version of Windows that you created.

Linux is different, and the GNU General Public License is part of the difference. This license provides the legal basis for your rights to the software. Originally written by Richard Stallman, it ensures that even when the work is modified or improved, Linux still remains in the public domain for other people to use and enjoy. This is the most widely used license in the FOSS community

The free and open nature of the license can be a double-edged sword. Without a clear revenue model, development may be inconsistent. Some programs receive regular investment, while others remain dormant for many years. However, Linux has now spread to become the backbone of the Internet and the most common operating system for supercomputers.

In the end though using Linux Very similar to Windows and macOS, there are aspects that you will need to learn for the first time. We will encounter many of them as we move forward.

Breathe life into an old PC

One of the common reasons why people switch to Linux is to be able to continue using a computer that no longer supports the latest versions of Windows or MacOS. How good is Linux for this job and why?

Linux is efficient: Many Linux distributions are based on years of experience in server rooms. System administrators often appreciate sleek and clean code that gets the job done without wasting power. The extra five seconds to turn on the system is something that many system administrators are not willing to put up with. Due to such a harsh and demanding environment, Linux distributions have become the best of their kind. Although with software coming from many different sources, it is not the case that every program will make the best use of system resources.

Linux is customizable: Linux allows users to customize every aspect of the computer's functionality. Some distributions recommend choosing various components and build your own system. Most of them provide complete functionality, but allow you to change or modify parts as you wish. Many distributions encourage you to make your own adjustments, while tuning others (such as a rudimentary OS) may require more specialized knowledge.

Linux requires no investment: the vast majority of Linux software is free to download and install. These programs are usually quite easy to use, so you don't need to spend money on training courses or books. Everything you need to spend to revive old computer with Linux it's time.

Linux is modular and specialized: You can customize a computer that is specifically designed to suit your needs: remote video monitoring, a database of food recipes, a control panel for amazing laser projector, which changes intensity by synchronizing with the rhythm of the music. You can build whatever you want. A testament to the quality of Linux's modular design is the Red Hat Linux variant that was used to control electromagnets inside the Large Hadron Collider. You'll be surprised how many things your old computer can still do.

Beginning of work

Whether you install Linux yourself or buy the computer that comes with it, you'll need to make a few decisions before doing so. There are several conditions you need to know that you have not encountered before. Let's figure it out.

Selecting a distribution

Let us remind you that the distribution is a Linux Operating System that comes with all the software necessary to provide you with a complete picture. The kernel is provided along with hardware drivers and applications.

Distributions come in all shapes and sizes. Some of them are aimed at beginners, while others are aimed at the most ardent command line proponents. Ubuntu, Fedora and openSUSE are three distributions general purpose, suitable for people of all skill levels.

There are many other Linux distributions, and they are all different from each other. Some distributions are tuned to serve a specific niche. Thus, you can install an operating system designed for multimedia creation, or an operating system designed for computers with old or weak hardware.

In this case, hardware compatibility is perhaps the most important thing to consider when switching to Linux. While most hardware is supported by default on most Linux distributions, less popular or unusual hardware may not work. In most cases, even if your device is not supported by default, you can follow online tutorials that will help you install an unsupported driver or fix the kernel, but this is not suitable for everyone. More on this later.

You can visit Distrowatch to see hundreds of Linux distributions. On the right side you will notice that there are the Top 100 most popular distributions. Note that it is difficult to estimate how many people use Linux. The Distrowatch databases are ranked by the popularity of each distribution's website. This gives an idea of ​​what people are interested in, but it's hardly an idea of ​​which distributions are most widely used. Ubuntu, for example, is not currently considered #1, but it is considered the most widely known version of desktop Linux.

Selecting a Desktop Environment

Depending on which distribution you choose, this decision may already be made for you. Most major Linux distributions provide a desktop environment by default.

But maybe you haven't decided on the distribution yet. In this case, checking your desktop environment can help you make a decision. Each of them provides various solutions, and some work better on some distributions than others. Here are a few of the most basic:

GNOME is the default desktop environment on Ubuntu, Fedora and Debian. While Windows, macOS and most Linux desktop environments display your open windows in a panel or dock, GNOME does nothing similar.

Instead, you switch between open windows, revealing an overview screen, a dashboard that also displays an application launcher, virtual desktops, and a search bar that can access files, open software, and execute commands. Although, if you want a traditional panel, there are extensions available for that.

The KDE Plasma desktop is the default environment in KDE Neon, Kubuntu and Chakra. It is also popular among openSUSE users.

KDE Plasma is perhaps the most customizable interface that can be used on desktop computer. For this reason, it is a great choice for advanced users and professionals. You can make KDE look like most other desktop interfaces without having to edit obscure files or customize any lines of code.

Cinnamon

Cinnamon provides a simple option that seems familiar to many Windows users switching to Linux. The application menu is in the bottom left corner, system indicators are in the bottom right corner, and open windows appear in between.

If you don't want to relearn how to use your computer, switching from Cinnamon can save you a lot of headaches. This is the default desktop environment in Linux Mint.

While Linux is a great way to revive an old computer, not every desktop environment will run on aging hardware. You may need to use one specially designed to use fewer system resources.

Xfce is one of the more popular options that is well suited for this task. This is the default desktop environment in Xubuntu.

Data backup

Before we get to the good stuff, we need to do some preliminary work. Although you probably no longer use your old computer, you should open it and look for documents, videos, photos, music that you haven't yet backed up. Be careful and double check because you may erase everything from hard drive Later.

Making a copy is not difficult, but it can be tedious if you have a lot of data scattered around. The easiest way to save files is to connect external hard drive to the USB port.

For Windows users:

1. Double-clicking the My Computer icon on your desktop or Start menu opens a window containing a list of files on your external hard drive.
2. Find and copy necessary files by selecting them and pressing Ctrl + C, activating the external hard drive file list. Click inside the window we opened earlier and press Ctrl + V. Alternatively, you can select the files and drag them into the external hard drive window.

You can also back up all your data to the Cloud. This method makes your data available on other internet-connected devices, but it will likely cost more over time. It also comes with a large number of security and privacy risks. Ultimately, you are giving your data to another person and trusting them to do the necessary things.

Checking Equipment Specifications

Knowing a little about your computer's hardware will be important later if there are compatibility issues. It's important that you write them down now because if anything breaks during the installation process or the first boot, you'll need to search the Internet for a driver, patched kernel, or package.

We don't need to write down all the hardware specs because drivers for things like Ethernet cards are mostly compatible. Bluetooth chips, card readers and printers are more difficult, but most of them are also supported by default.

Let's say you have a very rare Ethernet card. You can use the System Profiler tool to discover specifications after the operating system installation is complete.

If you are using Windows, msinfo32 is small program, included in Windows 2000, Me, XP, and later. This program gives you a complete overview of all the technology present in your system. You can find it by opening the Start menu and typing msinfo32 into the search field. In older Windows versions You may have to click the Run button in the Start menu and type msinfo32 there.

Installing Linux

Great, you've chosen your Linux distribution, backed up your files, and you know what kind of hardware your computer is made of. It's time to get your hands dirty.

There are three main ways to install most Linux distributions on your computer:

1. Replace existing OS with Linux
2. Install Linux alongside your existing OS
3. Running Linux from a USB Drive

Below are detailed instructions on installing Ubuntu on existing model Windows or macOS. By choosing from the three options presented above, when replacing the operating system, the operating system will run smoothly and quickly on your computer.

Installing Linux without removing the existing operating system is called dual boot. Whenever you start your computer, you will be able to select the operating system you want to use. This stops you from getting rid of your old OS, but there is always the option of uninstalling it.

Storing a copy of Linux on a USB drive allows you to download a copy of Linux onto a friend's computer, lab, or library. This method requires the least commitment from you and your computer, since you don't touch your copies of Windows or macOS.

Using the Linux Desktop

As you know, at the moment, there is no specific Linux desktop. But if you're like many, if not most, new Linux users, you're probably starting with Ubuntu. In this case, the first time you log into the new operating system, you will see a screen that looks like this.

This is the Ubuntu desktop. While Canonical has added a few interesting elements of its own, the interface you see is not exclusive to Ubuntu. This is GNOME.

For a full understanding of how to navigate this interface and other software, check out the Ubuntu Beginner's Guide

Search for additional software

The time comes when you need more apps. Where do you get them? You may be used to going to a big box store and buying a program that you either install from a disk or download from the Internet. You may be able to get all your apps by going to individual websites and downloading installers. You can even get all your software from app stores that sell you content, just like on your phone or tablet.

Windows programs only on Windows. The same applies to macOS software. You will need to find applications that are designed for Linux.

Most Linux software is now available through app stores filled with free programs. Their use is similar to that of App store on any other platform. Just find the application you want and click the install button.

These app stores are an alternative to package managers, traditional and more in complex ways obtaining software on Linux. Nowadays, you may never have to use a more advanced tool like Synaptic or Apper, but they give you more control over what you install.

While downloading installers directly from websites is not the preferred way to obtain Linux software, there are times when it is the only option. For example, how do you install Google Chrome. This is also a common way to install commercial games from online stores such as Humble Bundle and GOG. Just know that you won't be looking for an EXE. What's more likely is that you will instead find packaged files such as DEB, RPM, SH, or one of many other Linux formats.

Now that you know how to install apps, which one will you choose? Alternatively, check out our list best programs for Linux.

Installing the update

Updates are a free part of Linux. They keep your system running the latest software. You can also get user interface improvements and fixes to programs that run in the background.
Typically, you can install updates through your distribution's app store, the same place you go to download new software. Often it will have its own partition, as is the case with Ubuntu.

Downloading multimedia codecs

You may have never had to think about codecs before. They allow you to play various multimedia files such as music and videos on your computer. When you buy a Windows or macOS PC, codecs come as part of the desktop. This is usually not the case when you install Linux yourself.

This is not a bug or defect in the work Linux desktop- this is a legal issue. Many codecs remain under copyright, and computer manufacturers must pay licensing fees in order to legally distribute them.

Laws vary depending on the country. This is one of the reasons why codecs are available as free downloads on many Linux distributions such as Ubuntu and Linux Mint. But there is also a paid version, you can download it in case you want the exact license to play these files.

Search for additional drivers

When you change the operating system your computer came with, things don't always go smoothly. Sometimes you will need to install additional drivers or codecs to get the full picture.

If you are experiencing graphical glitches or cannot view Wi-Fi networks, You may need to install a proprietary driver. This is software that Linux distributions do not allow you to pre-install, so you must do it yourself. How you do this may vary depending on what distribution you are using. If you choose Ubuntu, you can find a section for installing drivers inside the software and updating the application. Software & Updates app.

What to do when you need specific software?

One of the first questions people ask when considering switching to Linux is whether they can run specific program. When we used only one operating system, we tended to think of applications as components that any computer should be able to run. But in most cases, an application is actually designed to run on only one operating system. In order to work on another, developers must build separate version. The Windows version of Steam does not work on macOS, and vice versa. Linux also needs its own version.

Since not as many people run Linux on their desktops as Windows or macOS, developers often choose not to make a Linux version of the software. Often a free and open source alternative that does the same job will suffice. But there are cases when people want to use a program that does not run on Linux and for which there is no alternative. While this may be a reason not to switch to Linux, the choice is always yours. There may still be ways to make this program work.

Emulation

You may have heard of emulators - software that people use to play console video games on their PCs. They operate using code that is similar enough to imitate (or emulate) the original machines for which the games were developed. The same can be done with programs designed for personal computers.

The most famous way to emulate software Windows software on Linux using Wine. Although this doesn't always work, at best Windows application will work alongside your regular software Linux provisioning without any extra fuss.

Because setting up Wine can be complicated, there are programs that will try to do the hard work for you. There are two popular examples - PlayOnLinux and Crossover Linux. The latter is paid application, which also exists for Windows and macOS.

Virtual machines

Emulation allows an application to run on an operating system for which it was not designed. Virtual machines allow you to run an entire operating system within the current one. So when you need to run a specific program for Windows, you can run your virtual copy of Windows and open the program.

Unlike emulation, virtual machines are guaranteed to work. The downside is that you have to boot a separate operating system in its own window, which can be time-consuming and inconvenient. You must also have a copy of Windows or macOS to run. Getting one of the options may be difficult or expensive depending on your circumstances.

All is ready!

At this point, you have installed Linux, learned the new interface, and installed the software needed to get started. But your journey is just beginning. There is so much more to see and do in the world of free and open source software!

Since everything is free, you can change your distribution at any time or change your current interface to any other. Nor do you need to open a command line to use Linux, as you can do a lot more if you're curious enough to try.

Any user may be interested in trying out the Linux operating system. That's what happened to me once. There is a lot of literature on the Internet, but the question always remains: “Where to start?” Some saw Linux from friends, others found a video or read articles on the Internet, but these are all more often ready-made options. And if you yourself want to install such an OS on your computer, then you will have a lot of questions. The first question that worried me was the choice of distribution...

I rummaged through a bunch of literature, but opinions were divided, and still are. Some are for Debian, others are for Mandriva, RedHat, etc. Currently, there are more than 1,300 builds of the Linux OS, and choosing one specific one makes the hardcore Windows user think deeply. I tried to install different ones, but it was not always possible due to equipment conflicts and simply inexperience. The first successfully installed distribution was OpenSuse 11.1, then Debian. The catch is that these distributions have different file structures, programs, etc. This confused me even more, but I continued experimenting until I decided on Ubuntu. This is what we will talk about.

I think it's worth noting that Ubuntu is based on the Debian distribution, which in turn is very popular among system administrators. What does "founded" mean? I'll try to draw a parallel with Windows OS. Imagine a regular licensed Windows disk. Introduced? Now imagine any assembly, even the notorious ZverDVD. So, Ubuntu is a “build” of Debian, which has an updated kernel, patches, its own programs and repositories. Later I will talk about all this separately. I think it’s not worth going too deep into the differences between Ubuntu and Debian, I’ll just add that this distribution is very popular and new versions of Ubuntu are released every six months (in April and October). And yet, why Ubuntu? Yes, it simply meets the requirements that a novice user sets for a new OS.

1. Simplicity and ease of installation. I want to insert the disc, install it, watch it, and not have any unnecessary dances with a tambourine (although in future work I won’t be able to do without dancing with a tambourine). I note that when working in Windows you can be simple user and don’t bother yourself with how and what works, and if infrequent problems or difficulties arise, simply turn to knowledgeable and understanding people who can help you. In the case of Linux, you will have to figure out a lot of things on your own and become a “knowledgeable” person yourself. But don’t be afraid, that’s not what you came here for. Be that as it may, you can always ask a question, and we, in turn, will try to help you.
2. To make everything work. Installed? Here you have a desktop and all sorts of menus and many programs, and a browser, and a package office programs and a network configuration applet (however, we will learn to work without it and configure the network manually). There is even a player, but it cannot play many audio/video formats by default; I will explain later why this is so and how to solve it.
3. I don't want to lose anything. There are a lot of applications and documents on the Windows OS partition that I don't want to lose when installing Linux. Ubuntu will offer you to divide your hard drive into parts, save Windows or any other OS and install its own bootloader that can boot both Windows and Linux. Modern Linux distributions, including Ubuntu, have the wonderful ability to run from a disk or flash drive without installing it on the computer’s hard drive. Distributions that can do this are called LiveCD / LiveDVD (or “live disk”). I advise you to first try to start the OS with installation disk . This way you will know for sure that a particular distribution can handle your computer’s hardware and there will be no problems during installation. By the way, there is a high probability that when starting Ubuntu from the LiveCD you can, by entering the network settings, use the Internet and the network. You will be able to work with text documents and tables. You can view pictures and so on. Just try booting from the disk. Do not forget that working with a LiveCD is still not working in a full-fledged operating system installed on a hard drive, so be prepared for “brakes” when reading from a CD in an attempt to open this or that program.

You can always leave your comments and suggestions for improving, changing or correcting the article in the comments. We work for you!