The meaning of the basic numbers of the periodic table. The meaning of the periodic system of Mendeleev

>> Chemistry: Periodic table of chemical elements by D. I. Mendeleev. Chemical element signs

The brilliant Russian chemist D.I. Mendeleev was distinguished throughout his life by an eternally young and ardent desire to understand the unknown. This desire, as well as the deepest and most extensive anakayas, combined with an unmistakable scientific intuition, allowed Dmitry Ivanovich to create a harmonious and strictly scientific classification of chemical elements, his famous Periodic system.

The periodic table can be imagined as a large house in which absolutely all the chemical elements known to man “live together.” To be able to use the Periodic Table, you need to study the chemical alphabet, that is, the signs of chemical elements. With their help, you will learn to write words - chemical formulas, and on their basis you will be able to write sentences - equations of chemical reactions.

Each chemical element in Mendeleev's Periodic Table (table) is designated by its own chemical sign, or symbol. As a symcolon. at the suggestion of the Swedish chemist J. Berzelius, the initial letters of the Latin names of chemical elements were adopted in most cases. Thus, hydrogen (Latin name - hydrogenium) is denoted by the letter H (read "ash"), oxygen (Latin name - oxygenium) - by the letter O (read "o"), carbon (Latin name carboneum) - C (read "ce") .

The Latin names of several more chemical elements begin with the letter C: calcium (Calcium), copper (Cuprum), cobalt (Coballum), etc. To distinguish them. Bertzglius proposed adding one of the subsequent letters of the name to the initial letter of the Latin name. So. The chemical sign for calcium is written with the symbol Ca (read "calcium"), copper - Si (read "cuprum"), cobalt - Co (read "cobalt").

In ignorance of some chemical elements, the most important properties of the earth are reflected, for example, hydrogen - which produces water, oxygen - which produces acids, phosphorus - which carries light.

Other elements are named after the planets of the solar system - selenium and tellurium (from the Greek Selene - Moon and Tellu-ris - Earth), uranium, plutonium.

Some ignorance is borrowed from mythology. For example, tantalum. This was the name of the beloved son of Zeus. For crimes against the gods, Tantalus was severely punished. He stood up to his neck, and branches with sap hung down on him. aromatic fruits. However, as soon as he wanted to drink, the water flowed away from him; he just wanted to satisfy his hunger and stretched out his hand to the fruits - the branches deviated to the side. Trying to isolate tantalum from steering wheels. The chemists experienced no less torment.
Some elements were named after different states or parts of the world. For example, germanium, gallium (Gaul is the ancient name for France), polonium (in honor of Poland), scandium (in honor of Scandinavia), francium, ruthenium (Ruthenium is the Latin name for Russia), europium and americium. Here are the elements that are named after cities: hafnium (in honor of Copenhagen), lutetium (as Paris was called in the old days), berkelium (in honor of the city of Berkeley in the USA), yttrium, terbium, erbium, ytterbium (the names of these elements come from Ytterby - small town in Sweden where a mineral containing these elements was first discovered).

Finally, the names of the great scientists are immortalized in the names of the elements: curium, fermium, einsteinium, mendelevium, lawrencium.

Each chemical element is assigned in the periodic table, in the common house of all elements, its own apartment with a strictly defined number. The deeper meaning of this number will be revealed with further study of chemistry. The number of floors of these apartments is also strictly distributed - the periods in which the elements “live”. Like the serial number of an element (the “apartment” number), the period (“floor”) number contains the most important information about the structure of the atoms of chemical elements. Horizontally - “number of storeys” - the Periodic Table is divided into seven periods:
Period I includes two elements: hydrogen H and helium He;
Period II begins with lithium Li and ends with neon Ne (8 elements);
Period III begins with sodium Na and ends with argon Ar (8 elements).

The first three periods, each consisting of one row, are called small periods.

Periods IV, V, VI each include two rows of elements and are called large periods; periods IV and V contain 18 elements each, VI - 32 elements;
The VII period is unfinished, so far it consists of one row.

Pay attention to the “basement floors” of the Periodic System - 14 twin elements “live” there, surprisingly similar in their properties, some to lanthanum (La), others to actinium (Ac), which represent them on the upper “floors” of the system: in VI and VII periods.
Vertically, chemical elements living in “apartments” with similar properties are located below each other in vertical sgoyabets - groups of which there are eight in the periodic table.

Each group consists of two subgroups - the main and secondary ones. The subgroup, which includes elements of both small and large periods, is called the main subgroup. The subgroup, which includes elements only of large periods, is called a secondary subgroup. Thus, the main subgroup of group I includes lithium, sodium, potassium, rubidium and francium - this is the lithium subgroup 1L; a secondary subgroup of this group is formed by copper, silver and gold - this is the Cu subgroup of copper.

In conclusion, we note that just like the 33 letters of the Russian alphabet, which, when combined in various combinations, form tens of thousands of words, so 109 chemical elements in various combinations create the entire wealth of the world of substances, which now numbers more than 10 million items.

Try to learn the laws of formation of words - chemical formulas, and then the world of substances will open before you in all its colorful diversity.

But to do this, first learn the following letter symbols of chemical elements (Table 1).
1. Periodic table of chemical elements by D. P. Mendeleev. 2. Periods large and small.
3. Groups and semi-groups - main and secondary.
4. Symbols of chemical elements.

Tasks

Using dictionaries (etymological, encyclopedic and chemical terms), name the most important properties reflected in the names of chemical elements: bromine (Br), nitrogen (Ni), fluorine (P).

Consider how the names of the chemical elements titanium and vanadium reflect the influence of ancient Greek myths.
Why was gold called aurum (Li), and silver was called argentum (Ae)?

Tell the story of the discovery of a chemical element of your choice and explain the etymology of its name.

Write down the “home address”, that is, the position in the Periodic Table of D.I. Mendeleev (period number and its type - large or small, group number and type of subgroup - main or secondary, element number), for the following chemical elements: calcium, zinc , antimony, tantalum, europium.

Creative assignments for grade 8, chemistry lessons, lesson notes for all subjects

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Chemical reactions involve the transformation of one substance into another. To understand how this happens, you need to remember from the course of natural history and physics that substances consist of atoms. There are a limited number of types of atoms. Atoms can connect to each other in different ways. Just as hundreds of thousands of different words are formed when adding the letters of the alphabet, molecules or crystals of different substances are formed from the same atoms.

Atoms can form molecules- the smallest particles of a substance that retain its properties. For example, several substances are known that are formed from only two types of atoms - oxygen atoms and hydrogen atoms, but from different types of molecules. These substances include water, hydrogen and oxygen. A water molecule consists of three particles bound to each other. These are atoms.

An oxygen atom (oxygen atoms are designated in chemistry by the letter O) is attached to two hydrogen atoms (they are designated by the letter H).

The oxygen molecule consists of two oxygen atoms; A hydrogen molecule is made up of two hydrogen atoms. Molecules can be formed during chemical transformations, or they can disintegrate. Thus, each water molecule breaks down into two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. Two water molecules form twice as many hydrogen and oxygen atoms.

Identical atoms bond in pairs to form molecules of new substances– hydrogen and oxygen. The molecules are thus destroyed, but the atoms are preserved. This is where the word “atom” comes from, which means in translation from ancient Greek "indivisible".

Atoms are the smallest chemically indivisible particles of matter

In chemical transformations, other substances are formed from the same atoms that made up the original substances. Just as microbes became accessible to observation with the invention of the microscope, so atoms and molecules became accessible to observation with the invention of instruments that provided even greater magnification and even made it possible to photograph atoms and molecules. In such photographs, atoms appear as blurry spots, and molecules appear as a combination of such spots. However, there are also phenomena in which atoms divide, atoms of one type turn into atoms of other types. At the same time, atoms that are not found in nature are also obtained artificially. But these phenomena are studied not by chemistry, but by another science - nuclear physics. As already mentioned, there are other substances that contain hydrogen and oxygen atoms. But, regardless of whether these atoms are part of water molecules or part of other substances, these are atoms of the same chemical element.

A chemical element is a specific type of atom How many types of atoms are there? Today, people reliably know about the existence of 118 types of atoms, that is, 118 chemical elements. Of these, 90 types of atoms are found in nature, the rest are obtained artificially in laboratories.

Chemical element symbols

In chemistry, chemical symbols are used to designate chemical elements. This is the language of chemistry. To understand speech in any language, you need to know the letters, and it’s the same in chemistry. To understand and describe the properties of substances and the changes that occur with them, first of all, you need to know the symbols of chemical elements. In the era of alchemy, much less chemical elements were known than now. Alchemists identified them with planets, various animals, and ancient deities. Currently, the notation system introduced by the Swedish chemist Jöns Jakob Berzelius is used all over the world. In his system, chemical elements are designated by the initial or one of the subsequent letters of the Latin name of a given element. For example, the element silver is represented by the symbol – Ag (lat. Argentum). Below are the symbols, symbol pronunciations, and names of the most common chemical elements. They need to be memorized!

The Russian chemist Dmitry Ivanovich Mendeleev was the first to organize the diversity of chemical elements, and based on the Periodic Law he discovered, he compiled the Periodic System of chemical elements. How is the Periodic Table of chemical elements organized? Figure 58 shows a short-period version of the Periodic Table. The Periodic Table consists of vertical columns and horizontal rows. Horizontal lines are called periods. To date, all known elements are placed in seven periods.

The periods are designated by Arabic numerals from 1 to 7. Periods 1–3 consist of one row of elements - they are called small.

Periods 4–7 consist of two rows of elements; they are called major. The vertical columns of the Periodic Table are called groups of elements.

There are eight groups in total, and Roman numerals from I to VIII are used to designate them.

There are main and secondary subgroups. Periodic Table– a universal reference book for a chemist, with its help you can get information about chemical elements. There is another type of Periodic System - long-period. In the long-period form of the Periodic Table, the elements are grouped differently, and are divided into 18 groups.

PeriodicSystems elements are grouped into “families”, that is, within each group of elements there are elements with similar, similar properties. In this version Periodic System, group numbers, as well as periods, are indicated in Arabic numerals. Periodic System of Chemical Elements D.I. Mendeleev

Prevalence of chemical elements in nature

The atoms of elements found in nature are distributed very unevenly. In space, the most common element is hydrogen - the first element of the Periodic Table. It accounts for about 93% of all atoms in the Universe. About 6.9% are helium atoms, the second element of the Periodic Table.

The remaining 0.1% comes from all other elements.

The abundance of chemical elements in the earth's crust differs significantly from their abundance in the Universe. The earth's crust contains the most atoms of oxygen and silicon. Together with aluminum and iron, they form the main compounds of the earth's crust. And iron and nickel- the main elements that make up the core of our planet.

Living organisms are also composed of atoms of various chemical elements. The human body contains the most atoms of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen.

Summary of the article about Chemical elements.

• Chemical element– a certain type of atom
• Today, people reliably know about the existence of 118 types of atoms, that is, 118 chemical elements. Of these, 90 types of atoms are found in nature, the rest are obtained artificially in laboratories
• There are two versions of the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements D.I. Mendeleev - short period and long period
• Modern chemical symbols are derived from the Latin names of chemical elements
• Periods– horizontal lines of the Periodic Table. Periods are divided into small and large
• Groups– vertical rows of the periodic table. Groups are divided into main and secondary

GOU gymnasium No. 1505 “Moscow City Pedagogical Gymnasium-Laboratory”

Essay

Etymology of the names of chemical elements of the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements D.I. Mendeleev

Completed

Student 8 "A" class

Gavrylyshyn Yura

Supervisor:

Zsoltye Vody

Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 3

§1. Toponymic elements………………………………………………………………………. 5

§2. Elements named after researchers………………………………………………………17

§3. Elements named after mythological heroes………..………………………21

§4. Elements named for their properties………………………………………………………….33

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………….45

References………………………………………………………………………………………46

INTRODUCTION

Nowadays, there are a considerable number of different methods of teaching chemistry. In the 9th grade, students study a fairly large and interesting (although not at all simple) section of this science - the chemistry of elements. Teachers approach its teaching differently - some make you “memorize” the material, some conduct practical classes and take students on excursions so that the material is better understood, and some conduct the so-called. integration of a subject with some other science: history, literature, linguistics, etc., i.e. teaches one science through the prism of another. This work is an attempt to carry out a similar integration of chemistry with various humanities, in particular with linguistics. This is one of the branches of the so-called. humanitarization of the exact sciences. The purpose of this essay is to try to approach the subject from an alternative angle, to deepen your knowledge in the chemistry of elements, to broaden your horizons and to find answers to various questions related to the etymology of the names of chemical elements, because not much attention is paid to this area in modern school chemistry textbooks. I studied a certain amount of reference literature, read several articles related to the etymology of the names of chemical elements, and used several dictionaries to write this work. Books were required in various subjects: chemistry, history, linguistics, mythology, because... different names required a different approach - all names came from different languages ​​and had different etymologies. Many of the names were rooted deep in history, so at times you had to guess or do a little research of your own. The main objective of this abstract was to cover as many elements as possible from the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements by D.I. Mendeleev, explain as many names as possible, and also divide the elements into logical groups related to the theme of their names.

We set ourselves the following tasks before writing the work:

1) Divide all the names of elements into groups related to the theme of their names (geography, mythology, scientists, properties of elements)

2) Find the origins of the names of each element

3) Draw a conclusion based on the work performed

4) Specific tasks:

a) for toponyms: arrange the elements in chronological order, find the places in honor of which they were named

b) for “mythological” elements: find the hero element corresponding to the name, give a myth associated with a particular character

c) for elements named after scientists: indicate the scientist after whom the element is named, provide some information about him

d) for elements named by properties: find the characteristic by which this or that element is named, subsequently dividing them into groups according to the nature of the property: color, smell, size, hardness, specific properties, etc.

§1. Toponymic elements

• TOPONYM
  a, m. (special). The proper name of a separate geographical place (settlement, river, land, etc.).

The reasons why people named elements after a particular geographical location vary. An element could be discovered in this place (such as dubnium - Dubna), or the scientist wanted to perpetuate his homeland in the name (polonium - Poland), and sometimes there was some hidden meaning in this (for example, californium, whose discovery was identified due to the difficulty of opening California). Presentation of the material in chronological order so that there are no contradictions with current geographical names - after all, many places have changed their names since this or that element was discovered. For example, lutetium. After all, it is impossible to guess that Lutetia is the Latin name for Paris.

Copper (Cu)

The Latin name for copper Cuprum (ancient Aes cuprium, Aes cyprium) comes from the name of the island of Cyprus, where already in the 3rd century. BC e. There were copper mines and copper smelting was carried out. Strabo (the ancient Greek geographer and historiographer of the mid-1st century BC) called copper “chalkos” from the name of the city of Chalkis on Euboea. In modern terms, chalkos is an ore. From this word came many ancient Greek names for copper and bronze objects, blacksmithing, blacksmithing and casting. The second Latin name for copper Aes (Sanskrit, ayas, Gothic aiz, German erz, English ore) means ore or mine. Proponents of the Indo-Germanic theory of the origin of European languages ​​derive the Russian word copper (Polish miedz, Czech med) from Old German smida (metal) and Schmied (blacksmith, English Smith). Of course, the relationship of the roots in this case is undoubtedly, however, in our opinion, both of these words are derived from the Greek. mine, mine independently of each other. From this word came related names - medal, medallion (French medaille). The words copper and copper are found in the most ancient Russian literary monuments. Alchemists called copper Venus; in more ancient times the name Mars is found.

Strontium (Sr)

It was discovered in the mineral Stontian, found in 1764 in a lead mine near the Scottish village of Stontian. Researchers for a long time mistook it for barium carbonate, but then, I.E. Lovitz carried out numerous reactions and found out that this element has nothing to do with barium. Electrolytic metal strontium was obtained by Davy in 1808. In Russian chemical literature of the early 19th century. the names strontium (Gise, 1813), strontian (Iovsky, 1822), strontium (Strakhov, 1825), strontium (Dvigubsky and Pavlov, 1825) are found; in addition, the name “base of strontian earth” was often used.

Beryllium (Be)

The oxide of this element was first obtained in 1798 by the French chemist L.N. Vauquelin in the analysis of the beryl mineral Be 3 Al 2 Si 6 O 18. Emerald and aquamarine have the same composition (their color is given by impurities of various elements). The name of the mineral (in Greek “beryllos”) goes back to the name of the city Belur (Velluru) in South India, not far from Madras; Since ancient times, emerald deposits have been known in India.

Magnesium and manganese (Mg, Mn)

With these two elements, the story turned out to be long. The ancient Greek philosopher Thales of Miletus studied samples of a black mineral that attracts iron. He called it "magnetis litos" - a stone from Magnesia, a mountainous area in Thessaly, eastern Northern Greece. This was a famous area. Jason built the ship "Argo" there, and Hercules' friend Philoctetes sailed ships from here to Troy. The name of the magnet comes from Magnesia. It is now known that it was magnetic iron ore - black iron oxide Fe 3 O 4.

What do magnesium and manganese have to do with it? The Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder used the term magnetis(or magnes) to designate a similar black mineral, which, however, did not have magnetic properties (Pliny explained this by the “feminine gender” of the stone). Later, this mineral was called pyrolusite (from the Greek “pyr” - fire and “lusis” - cleaning, since when it was added to molten glass it became discolored). It was manganese dioxide. In the Middle Ages, when copying manuscripts, magnes first turned into mangnes, then in manganes. In 1774, the Swedish mineralogist Yu. Gan isolated a new metal from pyrolusite and gave it the name manganes. In this form, it was fixed in European languages ​​(English and French. manganese, German Mangan). The laws of the Russian language turned the combination “ngn” into “rgn” - this is how “manganese” appeared from “manganese”.

In 1695, salt was isolated from the mineral water of Epsom Spring in England, which had a bitter taste and a laxative effect. Pharmacists called it bitter, Epsom or Epsom salt, the mineral epsomite has the composition MgSO 4 7H 2 O. And chemists, acting on solutions of this salt with soda or potash, obtained a white precipitate - basic magnesium carbonate, which can have a different composition, for example 3MgCO 3 Mg(OH) 2 3H 2 O. It was white magnesia ( magnesia alba), it was used (and is now used) externally as a powder, and internally for high acidity and as a mild laxative. Basic magnesium carbonate occurs occasionally in nature, and magnesia alba also known since ancient times. This mineral was probably found near Magnesia, but most likely it was another one. The fact is that the inhabitants of Magnesia founded two cities in Asia Minor with the same name, which could lead to confusion. One of these cities is now called Manisa and is located on the eastern tip of Turkey. The surrounding area of ​​this city is famous for the tales of Niobe. Another Magnesia was further south, where the famous Temple of Artemis was located.

Lavoisier considered white magnesia to be a simple solid. In 1808, the English chemist Humphry Davy, by electrolysis of slightly moistened white magnesia with a mercury cathode, obtained an amalgam of a new metal (it contains up to 3% magnesium), which he isolated by distillation of mercury and called magnesium. Since then, in all European languages ​​this element is called magnesium and only in Russian - magnesium: that’s what G.I. called it. Hess in his chemistry textbook, published in 1831 and going through seven editions. Many Russian chemists studied from this book.

Ruthenium (Ru)

This platinum group metal was discovered by K. K. Klaus in Kazan in 1844 when he analyzed the so-called factory platinum deposits. Having received about 15 pounds of such residue from the St. Petersburg Mint, after extracting platinum and some platinum metals from the ore, Klaus alloyed the residue with saltpeter and extracted the water-soluble part (containing osmium, chromium and other metals). He exposed the water-insoluble residue to aqua regia and distilled it to dryness. Having treated the dry residue after distillation with boiling water and adding excess potash, Klaus separated the precipitate of iron hydroxide, in which he discovered the presence of an unknown element by the dark purple-red color of the solution of the precipitate in hydrochloric acid. Klaus isolated a new metal in the form of a sulfide and proposed calling it ruthenium in honor of Russia (Latin Ruthenia - Russia). This name was first given in 1828 by Ozanne to one of the elements supposedly discovered by him. According to Ozanne, when analyzing Nizhne Tagil platinum ore, he discovered three platinum metals: ruthenium, plurane (an abbreviation of the words platinum of the Urals) and polyne (Greek - gray-haired, based on the color of the solution). Berzelius, who checked Ozanne's tests, did not confirm his discovery. Klaus, however, believed that Ozanne had obtained ruthenium oxide and mentioned this in his message in 1845. According to Zavidsky, ruthenium was discovered even earlier (1809) by the Vilna scientist Snyadetsky, the latter proposed to call it news on behalf of the asteroid Vesta, discovered in 1807 G.

Gallium (Ga)

Was predicted by D.I. Mendeleev as eka-aluminum (as an element in the aluminum subgroup - such predictions can be made on the basis of the periodic law) and discovered in 1875 by the French chemist Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran, who named it after his homeland ( Gallia- Latin name for France). The symbol of France is the rooster (in French - le coq), so that in the name of the element its discoverer implicitly immortalized his surname.

Lutetium (Lu)

The discovery of lutetium (English Lutecium, French Lutecium, German Lutetium) is associated with the study of the earth ytterbium. The history of the discovery is complex and long. Mozander isolated erbium earth (erbium) from yttrium earth, and 25 years later, in 1878, Marignac showed that in gadolinite, along with erbium, there is another earth, which he called ytterbium. The following year, Nilsson isolated scandium from ytterbium earth, which contains the element scandium. Then research on ytterbium was not carried out until 1905, when Urban, and a little later Auer von Welsbach, reported that there were two more new lands in the ytterbium of Marignac, one of which contained the element lutetium, and the other the element neoytterbium (Neoytterbium).

Auer von Welsbach named these same elements Cassiopeium and Aldebaranium, respectively. For a number of years, both names were used in the chemical literature. In 1914, the International Commission on Atomic Weights decided to name element 71 lutetium and element 70 ytterbium. Urban derived the word lutetium from lutetia, the ancient Latin name for Paris (Lutetia Parisorum).

Yttrium, ytterbium, terbium, erbium (Y, Yb, Tb, Er)

In 1787, amateur mineralogist Karl Arrhenius discovered a new mineral in a quarry near the small Swedish town of Ytterby on the island of Ruslagen near Stockholm, which was called ytterbite. Subsequently, several new elements were discovered in it. Finnish chemist Johan Gadolin discovered an oxide of one of them in this mineral in 1794. The Swede Ekeberg named it yttrium earth in 1797 ( yttria). The mineral was later renamed gadolinite, and the element it contained was called yttrium. In 1843, Swedish chemist Karl Mosander showed that "yttrium earth" is a mixture of three oxides. Just as this mixture was “split” into its components, its name was also “split”. This is how ytterbium, terbium and erbium appeared. Mosander himself was able to isolate erbium and terbium oxides in pure form; pure ytterbium oxide was isolated in 1878 by the Swiss chemist Jean Marignac, who holds the honor of discovering this element. However, the history of the mineral did not end there...

Germanium (Ge)

Back in 1871, Mendeleev foresaw the existence of an element similar to silicon, Eka-Silicium. 15 years later, in 1885, a professor of mineralogy at the Freiberg Mining Academy, Welsbach, discovered a new mineral at the Himmelfürst mine, near Freiberg, which he called argyrodite, due to the presence of silver in the mineral. Welsbach asked Winkler to conduct a complete analysis of the mineral sample. Winkler found that the total sum of the mineral’s constituent parts does not exceed 93–94% of the sample taken and, therefore, some unknown element is present in the mineral, undetectable by analysis. After hard work, in early February 1886, he discovered the salts of the new element and isolated some of the element itself in its pure form. In the first report of the discovery, Winkler suggested that the new element was an analogue of antimony and arsenic. This idea caused a literary controversy that did not subside until it was established that the new element was eca-silicon, predicted by Mendeleev. Winkler intended to call the element neptunium, meaning that the history of its discovery was similar to the history of the discovery of the planet Neptune, predicted by Leverrier. However, it turned out that the name Neptunium had already been given to one falsely discovered element, and Winkler renamed the element he discovered to Germanium in honor of his fatherland. This name caused sharp objections from some scientists. For example, one of them pointed out that this name is similar to the name of a flower - geranium (Geranium). In the heat of debate, Raymond jokingly proposed calling the new element Angularium, i.e. angular, causing controversy. However, Mendeleev, in a letter to Winkler, strongly supported the name germanium.

Holmium (Ho)

In 1879, Swiss chemist and physicist J.L. Soret discovered a new element in “erbium earth” using spectral analysis. The name was given to it by the Swedish chemist P.T. Kleve in honor of Stockholm (its ancient Latin name Holmia), since the mineral from which Kleve himself isolated the oxide of a new element in 1879 was found near the capital of Sweden.

Thulium (Tm)

The discovery of thulium (thulium earth), like many other elements, dates back to the time when the arsenal of tools for studying rare earths was enriched by the method of spectral analysis. The background to the discovery of thulium is as follows. At the end of the 18th century. Ekeberg isolated yttrium from gadolinite earth, which was considered pure yttrium oxide until Mozander divided it into three earths - yttrium, terbium and erbium. In 1878, Marignac isolated two lands from the terbium earth of Mozander, called erbium and ytterbium. The study of land mixtures did not stop there. The very next year, Cleve divided Marignac's erbium into three lands - erbium, holmium (which turned out to be a mixture) and thulium. He asked Nilsson (who discovered scandium) for the residue from the extraction of scandium and ytterbium, believing that this preparation was a relatively pure solution of erbium salts. However, after hundreds of repeated operations of precipitation and dissolution of the drug, erbium still contained some kind of impurity: the atomic weight of erbium in different fractions was not the same. Kleve turned to Talen, a professor of physics at Uppsala University, with a request to examine the absorption spectra of these fractions and compare them with the spectra of samples of erbium, ytterbium and yttrium. Talen discovered lines belonging to erbium and holmium in the erbium fraction; the third spectrum indicated the presence of a new element. Thus, thulium was discovered, named Kleve in honor of the ancient (from the time of the Roman Empire) name of Scandinavia - Thule. Kleve then processed 11 kg of gadolinite, isolated thulium oxide and examined its pale green salts. Pure thulium oxide was obtained, however, only in 1911. How difficult it was to determine thulium, and even more so to chemically isolate its pure oxide, is evidenced by the following facts, for example. The master of spectroscopic research, Lecoq de Boisbaudran, believed that there were two thuliums, and the largest researcher of rare earths, Auer von Welsbach, stated that he had established the presence of even three thuliums.

Previously, the symbol for thulium was Tu, and not Tm, as it is now. In some chemical works of the end of the last and beginning of the current century, “thulium” was often mistakenly written.

Scandium (Sc)

In 1871, Mendeleev, based on the periodic law he discovered, predicted the existence of several elements, including an analogue of boron, which he called eka - boron. Mendeleev predicted not only the element itself, but also all the basic properties: atomic and specific gravity, chemical properties, oxide and chloride formulas, properties of salts, etc. Eight years later, his prediction was completely confirmed. Professor of analytical chemistry in Uppsala, Nilsson studied the rare earth minerals euxenite and gadolinite. His goal was to isolate compounds of rare earth elements in pure form from minerals, determine their physicochemical constants and clarify the places of elements in the periodic table. Nilsson isolated 69 g of erbium earth with an admixture of other rare earths from euxenite and gadolinite. By dividing this sample, he obtained a large amount of ytterbium oxide and unknown earth, which he mistook for the oxide of a rare earth element. But a more detailed study showed that this is some kind of new element. Nilsson named it scandium in honor of his homeland Scandinavia. The identity of the new element with Mendeleev's eca-boron was pointed out by another Uppsala scientist, Kleve; in particular, he drew attention to the similarity of the oxide formulas, the colorlessness of the salts and the insolubility of the oxide in alkalis. After this, the new element took the place in the periodic table that Mendeleev pointed out. Before 1908, it was believed that scandium was extremely rare in nature. Crookes and Eberhard proved the widespread distribution of this element in a dispersed state. Metallic scandium was obtained in 1914, and in 1936 Fischer developed a method for its isolation by electrolysis from a melt of alkali metal chlorides.

Europium (Eu)

French chemist E.A. Demarsay isolated europium from a mixture of rare earth metals in 1886. Its existence was confirmed by spectral analysis only 15 years later, when Demarce gave the new element the name Europium in honor of the continent of Europe in 1901.

Polonium (Po)

In 1898, while examining uranium tar from Bohemia, containing up to 75% uranium, Curie-

Sklodowska noticed that tar has significantly higher radioactivity than pure uranium preparations isolated from the same tar. This suggested that the mineral contained one or more new elements of high radioactivity. In July of the same year, Curie-Sklodowska made a complete analysis of uranium tar, carefully monitoring the radioactivity of each product isolated from it. The analysis turned out to be very difficult, since the mineral contained several elements. Two fractions had increased radioactivity; one of them contained bismuth salts, the other - barium salts. A product was isolated from the bismuth fraction, the activity of which was 400 times higher than the activity of uranium. Curie-Sklodowska came to the natural conclusion that such high activity was due to the presence of salts of some hitherto unknown metal. She named it Polonium in honor of her homeland Polonia (Poland). However, for several years after this discovery, the existence of polonium was considered controversial. In 1902, Markwald tested the analysis of uranium tar on a large amount of the mineral (about 2 tons). He isolated the bismuth fraction, discovered a “new” element in it and named it radiotellurium, since, being highly radioactive, the metal was similar to tellurium in other properties. As Markwald determined, the radiotellurium salt he isolated was a million times more active than uranium and 1000 times more active than polonium. The element has an atomic weight of 212 and a density of 9.3. Mendeleev at one time predicted the existence of an element with such properties and, based on its expected position in the periodic table, named the element di-tellurium. In addition, Markwald's findings have been confirmed by several researchers. However, Rutherford soon established that radiotellurium is one of the products of the radioactive decay of the uranium series, and named the element Ra-F (Radium-F). Only a few years later it became obvious that polonium, radiotellurium and radium-F are the same element, possessing alpha and gamma radiation and a half-life of about 140 days. As a result of this, it was recognized that the priority for the discovery of a new element belonged to the Polish scientist, and the name proposed by her was retained.

Hafnium (Hf)

For a long time, chemists suspected that zirconium minerals contained an admixture of some unknown element. Back in 1845, the Swedish chemist Svanberg reported his discovery of an element in zircon, which he called norium. After this, many researchers reported the discovery of this element, but each time it was a mistake. In 1895, Thomsen, based on the periodic law, showed that between the rare earths and tantalum there must be an element different from the rare earths, but close to zirconium. In 1911, Urban, while separating yttrium earth from gadolinite, discovered that one fraction produces several unknown spectral lines. He came to the conclusion about the existence of a new element belonging to the group of rare earths, and named it Celtium. After Mosely discovered the X-ray spectra of the elements and their serial numbers were established (1913 -1914), it turned out that the new element should have atomic number 72. However, Mosely did not find the lines of this element in Urbain's celtium. Assuming that imperfect technology for determining X-ray spectra was to blame, Urban asked the physicist Deauvillier to repeat the experiment. Deauvillier was able to discover two weak lines characteristic of element 72, and therefore the element was given the name celtium. But the following year, Koster and Hevesy found these lines and several similar ones in various zircons. This served as proof that element 72 does not belong to rare earths, but is an analogue of zirconium. The element 72 isolated by Hevesy soon after, both researchers, being Danes, decided to call it hafnium from the ancient name of the city of Copenhagen (Hafnia, or Kjobn-hafn), since their discovery was made in this city.

Rhenium (Re)

It was discovered in 1925 by German chemists Ida and Walter Noddack and named after the Rhine Province - Ida's homeland.

Francium (Fr)

Francium is one of the four elements of Mendeleev’s periodic table that were discovered “last of all.” Indeed, by 1925, all cells of the table of elements were filled in, with the exception of 43, 61, 85 and 87. Numerous attempts to discover these missing elements remained unsuccessful for a long time. Element 87 (eka-cesium (i.e., an element similar in properties to cesium; similar predictions are made on the basis of Mendeleev's Periodic Law and its Periodic Table of Elements) was sought mainly in cesium minerals, hoping to find it as a satellite of cesium. In 1929 Messrs. Allison and Murphy reported their discovery of eka-caesium in the mineral lepidolite, and named the new element virginium after Allison's home state in the United States. In 1939, Khulubei discovered element 87 in polllux and named it moldavium. Other authors also reported about the discovery of eka-caesium 87, and the collection of its names was enriched with alkalinium and russium. However, all these discoveries were erroneous. In 1939, Perey at the Curie Institute in Paris was purifying a preparation of actinium from various radioactive decay products. Carrying out carefully controlled operations, she discovered beta radiation, which could not belong to any of the decay isotopes of the actinium series known at that time... After the Second World War, which interrupted Perey's work, her conclusions were fully confirmed. In 1946, Perey proposed naming element 87 francium in honor of her homeland.

Americium (Am)

It was obtained artificially in 1944 at the Metallurgical Laboratory of the University of Chicago by Glenn Seaborg and co-workers. The outer electron shell of the new element (5f) turned out to be similar to europium (4f). Therefore, the element was named after America, just as europium was named after Europe.

Berkeley (Bk)

Opened in December 1949 Thompson, Ghiorso and Seaborg at the University of California at Berkeley. When the americium-241 isotope is irradiated with alpha particles (positively charged particles formed by 2 protons and 2 neutrons, the nucleus of a helium-4 atom (4 He 2+)). they obtained the berkelium isotope 243 Vk. Since Bk has a structural similarity to terbium, which received its name from the city of Ytterby in Sweden, American scientists named their element after the city of Berkeley. The name berkelium is often found in Russian literature.

California (Cf)

It was obtained artificially in 1950 by the same group. As the authors wrote, with this name they wanted to indicate that it was as difficult for them to discover a new element as it was a century ago for American pioneers to reach California, because... was recognized on a very meager amount of the studied material (about 5000 atoms). In addition, the correspondence between the properties of californium and the rare earth element dysprosium is taken into account. The authors of the discovery reported that “dysprosium is named based on a Greek word meaning difficult to reach; the discovery of another (corresponding) element a century later also proved difficult to obtain in California.”

Those. 1) 5000 particles: 6.02 × 10 23 (Avogadro’s number - number of particles in one mole of a substance) = 8.3 × 10 -21 mol

2) 8.3 × 10 -21 × 251 g\mol (molar mass of California) = 2.083 × 10 -18 grams

Dubnium (Db)

Element 105 was first obtained at the accelerator in Dubna in 1970 by the group of G.N. Flerov and independently in Berkeley (USA). Soviet researchers proposed calling it nielsborium (Ns), in honor of Niels Bohr, the Americans - ganium (Ha), in honor of Otto Hahn, one of the authors of the discovery of spontaneous fission of uranium, the IUPAC commission - joliotium (Jl), in honor of Joliot Curie, or, so that no one is offended, the Sanskrit numeral is unnilpentium (Unp), that is, simply the 105th. The symbols Ns, Na, Jl could be seen in tables of elements published in different years. Now this element is called dubnium. The city and its specifics are reflected in literature - in Galich’s poems “And he lives not in Dubna atomic, but in some research institute near Kashira...”

Hassiy (Hs)

The first reliable data on element 108 were obtained in 1984 in Dubna and independently and simultaneously at an accelerator near Darmstadt - a city in the federal state of Hesse, the Latin name of this ancient German principality, and then the grand duchy of Hesse-Darmstadt - Hassia, hence the name of the element (although in Russian it would be more logical to call it hessium). And there was confusion in the names with this element (it was previously called ganium).

§2. Elements named after researchers

In modern chemistry textbooks, little attention is paid to scientists, and only their discoveries and achievements are studied directly. This chapter is intended to expand knowledge about scientists and eminent researchers who are in one way or another involved in the discovery, study and naming of elements.

There is an opinion that young researchers (under 40 years of age) are more likely to immortalize their names in the titles of their discoveries. We decided to check it out and found out that indeed, such a trend existed and perhaps still exists!

Gadolinium (Gd)

In 1794, Gadolin, a professor of chemistry and mineralogy at the University of Abo (Finland), while studying a mineral found near the town of Ytterby, three miles from Stockholm, discovered an unknown earth (oxide) in it. A few years later, Ekeberg re-examined this land and, having established the presence of beryllium in it, named it yttrium (Yttria). Mazander showed that yttrium earth consists of two earths, which he called terbium and erbium. Further, Marignac, in terbium earth isolated from the mineral samarskite, discovered another earth - samarium (Samaria). In 1879, Lecoq de Boisbaudran isolated the same land from didymium and new land, designated by him with the index “alfa”, and with the consent of Marignac, he named the latter gadolinium earth in honor of Gadolin, the first researcher of the mineral ytterbite. The element contained in gadolinium earth (Gadolinia) is called gadolinium; in its pure form it was obtained in 1896.

Samarium (Sm)

The discovery of samarium is the result of persistent chemical-analytical and spectral studies of didymium earth, isolated by Mozander from cerium earth. For several decades after Mozander isolated didymium from lantana earth, the element didymium was believed to exist, although some chemists suspected that it was a mixture of several elements. In the middle of the 19th century. a new source for obtaining didymium earth was the mineral samarskite, discovered by the Russian mining engineer V. M. Samarsky in the Ilmen Mountains; Later, samarskite was found in North America in the state of North Carolina. Many chemists have been analyzing samarskite. In 1878, Delafontaine, who examined samples of didyme isolated from samarskite, discovered two new blue lines in the spectrum. He decided that they belonged to a new element, and gave it the meaningful name decipere (Latin decipere - to fool, deceive). There were other reports of the discovery of new lines in the spectrum of didyma. This issue was resolved in 1879, when Lecoq de Boisbaudran, trying to separate didymium, found that spectroscopic analysis of one of the fractions gave two blue lines with wavelengths of 400 and 417 A. He came to the conclusion that these lines were different from the lines of decipium Delafontaine, and proposed to call the new element samarium, emphasizing that it was isolated from samarskite. Decipius turned out to be a mixture of samarium with other elements of didymyia. Lecoq de Boisbaudran's discovery was confirmed in 1880 by Marignac, who, when analyzing samarskite, managed to obtain two fractions containing new elements. Marignac designated the fractions Y beta and Y alfa. Later, the element present in the Y alpha fraction was named gadolinium, while the Y beta fraction had a spectrum similar to that of Lecoq de Boisbaudran's samarium. In 1900, Demarsay, who developed a new method of fractional crystallization, established that the element europium is a satellite of samarium.

Fermium and einsteinium (Fm), (Es)

In 1953, in the products of the thermonuclear explosion that the Americans carried out in 1952, isotopes of two new elements were discovered, which were named fermium and einsteinium - in honor of physicists Enrico Fermi and Albert Einstein.

Curium (Cm)

The element was obtained in 1944 by a group of American physicists led by Glenn Seaborg by bombarding plutonium with helium nuclei. He was named after Pierre and Marie Curie. In the table of elements, curium is located directly below gadolinium - so when scientists came up with a name for the new element, they probably also had in mind the fact that gadolinium was the first element named after the scientist. In the element symbol (Cm), the first letter represents the surname Curie, the second letter represents the given name Marie.

Mendelevium (Md)

It was first announced in 1955 by Seaborg's group, but it was not until 1958 that reliable data were obtained at Berkeley. Named in honor of D.I. Mendeleev.

Nobelium (No)

Its discovery was first reported in 1957 by an international group of scientists working in Stockholm, who proposed naming the element in honor of Alfred Nobel. Later it turned out that the results obtained were erroneous. The first reliable data on element 102 were obtained in the USSR by the group of G.N. Flerov in 1966. Scientists proposed renaming the element in honor of the French physicist Frederic Joliot-Curie and calling it joliotium (Jl). As a compromise, there was a proposal to name the element Flerovium - in honor of Flerov. The question remained open, and for several decades the Nobelium symbol was placed in parentheses. This was the case, for example, in the 3rd volume of the Chemical Encyclopedia, published in 1992, which contained an article on Nobelium. However, over time, the issue was resolved, and starting from the 4th volume of this encyclopedia (1995), as well as in other publications, the Nobelium symbol was freed from brackets. In general, the issue of priority in the discovery of transuranium elements has been the subject of intense debate for many years. For element names 102 to 109, the final decision was made on August 30, 1997. In accordance with this decision, the names of superheavy elements are given here.

Lawrence (Lr)

The production of various isotopes of element 103 was reported in 1961 and 1971 (Berkeley), in 1965, 1967 and 1970 (Dubna). The element was named after Ernest Orlando Lawrence, an American physicist and inventor of the cyclotron. The Berkeley National Laboratory is named after Lawrence. For many years, the symbol Lr was placed in parentheses in our periodic tables.

Rutherfordium (Rf)

The first experiments to obtain element 104 were undertaken in the USSR by Ivo Zvara and his colleagues back in the 60s. G.N. Flerov and his co-workers reported obtaining another isotope of this element. It was proposed to name it kurchatovium (symbol Ku) - in honor of the leader of the atomic project in the USSR. I.V. Kurchatova. American researchers who synthesized this element in 1969 used a new identification technique, believing that the previously obtained results could not be considered reliable. They proposed the name rutherfordium - in honor of the outstanding English physicist Ernest Rutherford, IUPAC proposed the name dubnium for this element. The international commission concluded that the honor of the opening should be shared by both groups.

Seaborgium (Sg)

Element 106 was obtained in the USSR. G.N. Flerov and his colleagues in 1974 and almost simultaneously in the USA. G. Seaborg and his staff. In 1997, the IUPAC approved the name seaborgium for this element, in honor of the patriarch of American nuclear researchers Seaborg, who took part in the discovery of plutonium, americium, curium, berkelium, californium, einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium and who by that time was 85 years old. There is a well-known photograph in which Seaborg stands near the table of elements and points with a smile at the symbol Sg.

Borium (Bh)

The first reliable information about the properties of element 107 was obtained in Germany in the 1980s. The element is named after Niels Bohr ( Bohr). Symbol Bh.

Niels Bohr (1885-1962) - Danish physicist, one of the founders of modern physics. Founder and director of the Institute for Theoretical Physics in Copenhagen (Niels Bohr Institute); creator of the world scientific school; foreign member of the USSR Academy of Sciences (1929). In 1943-45 he worked in the USA.

Niels Bohr created the theory of the atom, which was based on the planetary model of the atom, quantum concepts and the postulates proposed by Bohr. Important works on the theory of metals, the theory of the atomic nucleus and nuclear reactions. Works on the philosophy of natural science. An active participant in the fight against the atomic threat. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in 1922.

§3. Elements named after mythological heroes

We hypothesized that mythological names of elements are an alternative to names associated with the properties of the element. This is an unusual view of the properties of a particular compound. We decided to include in this chapter, along with the general interpretation of the names, a myth associated with the character after whom the element is named. All this will help expand your knowledge of mythology, as well as take an unconventional look at the elements and their properties.

Cadmium (Cd)

Discovered in 1818 by the German chemist and pharmacist Friedrich Strohmeyer in zinc carbonate, from which medicines were obtained at a pharmaceutical factory. Since ancient times, the Greek word “kadmeia” has been used to describe carbonate zinc ores. The name goes back to the mythical Cadmus (Kadmos) - a hero of Greek mythology. Cadmus allegedly was the first to find the zinc mineral and discovered to people its ability to change the color of copper during the joint smelting of their ores (an alloy of copper and zinc - brass). The name Cadmus goes back to the Semitic “Ka-dem” - East.

In Greek mythology, Cadmus is the son of Agenor, king of Canaan, and Telephassa, the founder of Thebes (in Boeotia). Sent by his father along with his other brothers in search of Europe, Cadmus, accompanied by his mother Telephassa, sailed to Rhodes, where he dedicated a bronze cauldron to Athena and built the temple of Poseidon, leaving hereditary priests to look after it. Then they arrived on the island of Thera, where they also built a temple, after which they reached Thrace and were warmly welcomed by the local population. Here Telephassa died unexpectedly, and after the funeral, Cadmus and his companions went on foot to Delphi. There he turned to the oracle of Apollo and was instructed to stop searching and follow a cow with moon signs on its sides; where the cow collapses from fatigue, Cadmus must found a city. Coming out of the sanctuary, Cadmus met shepherds who served Pelagon, king of Phocis, and they sold him a cow with the signs of the full moon on its sides. He drove the animal east through all of Boeotia, not allowing it to rest anywhere until the exhausted cow fell. To sacrifice a cow to Athena, Cadmus sent companions to the spring of Ares for purifying water, not knowing that the spring was guarded by a dragon. This dragon destroyed most of Cadmus's companions, for which Cadmus split his head with a stone. Before he had time to make a sacrifice to Athena, she appeared herself and praised him for everything he had done, ordering him to sow half the teeth of the serpent he had killed (Athena gave the second half of the teeth to the Colchisian king Eetus, who then gave them to Jason). When Cadmus had done everything, armed people (Sparti, or “sown people”) jumped out of the ground and began to rattle their weapons. He threw a stone into their ranks, which caused a quarrel: each began to accuse the other that it was he who threw the stone. They fought so fiercely that in the end only five remained alive: Echion, Udeus, Chthonius, Hyperenor and Pelor. They all unanimously declared that they were ready to serve Cadmus, and subsequently became the ancestors of the noblest Theban families in the fortress of Cadmeus, founded by Cadmus, around which Thebes grew. Since the killed dragon was the son of Ares, the god of war demanded retribution and Cadmus had to serve as his slave for eight years. After the end of this service, Athena made Cadmus king of Cadmea (later renamed Thebes), and Zeus gave him Harmony, the daughter of Ares and Aphrodite, as his wife. This was the first mortal wedding attended by the Olympian gods. Harmony gave birth to Cadmus's son Polydorus, whose grandson was Laius, and four daughters: Autonoia, Ino, Agave and Semele. In old age, Cadmus, together with Harmony, moved to Illyria, where they turned into snakes and eventually ended up in Elysium (the land of the blessed, where heroes and the righteous go after death). Cadmus was credited with the invention of Greek writing (according to another version, the introduction of the Phoenician alphabet in Greece).

Cobalt (Co)

In the 15th century in Saxony, among the rich silver ores, white or gray crystals, shining like steel, were discovered, from which it was not possible to smelt the metal; their admixture with silver or copper ore interfered with the smelting of these metals. The “bad” ore was given the name of the mountain spirit Kobold by the miners. Apparently, these were arsenic-containing cobalt minerals - cobaltine CoAsS, or cobalt sulfides skutterudite, saflorite or smaltine. When they are fired, volatile, toxic arsenic oxide is released. Probably, the name of the evil spirit goes back to the Greek “kobalos” - smoke; it is formed during the roasting of ores containing arsenic sulfides. The Greeks used the same word to describe lying people. In 1735, the Swedish mineralogist Georg Brand managed to isolate a previously unknown metal from this mineral, which he named cobalt. He also found out that compounds of this particular element color glass blue - this property was used in ancient Assyria and Babylon.

Kobold - in the mythology of Northern Europe, was the spirit of the mine. The description of appearance is similar to a gnome, however, unlike gnomes, kobolds did not engage in mining crafts, but only lived in the mines. Sometimes they are called knockers, because it is believed that they are the ones who knock their feet while running through the tunnels.

Kobolds usually dress like miners and have fire-red (sometimes literally glowing) beards. Always carry a lamp with you. They can help a lost miner get out or, on the contrary, lead him into the darkest abandoned adit. They never leave the mine themselves, but they can communicate with rats and can sometimes send them to the surface.

They are afraid of the sun and, like most underground inhabitants, turn into stone with its first ray.

Nickel (Ni)

The origin of the name is similar to cobalt. Medieval miners called Nickel the evil mountain spirit who threw false minerals to the miners, and “kupfernickel” ( Kupfernickel, copper devil) - fake copper. This ore was similar in appearance to copper and was used in glass making to color glass green. But no one managed to get copper from it - it wasn’t there. This ore - copper-red crystals of nickel (red nickel pyrite NiAs) was studied by the Swedish mineralogist Axel Kronstedt in 1751 and isolated a new metal from it, calling it nickel. Nikkel is a dirty word in the language of miners. It was formed from a corruption of Nicolaus, a generic word that had several meanings. But mainly the word Nicolaus served to characterize two-faced people; in addition, it meant “mischievous little spirit”, “deceptive slacker”, etc. In Russian literature of the early 19th century. the names Nikolan (Scherer, 1808), Nikolan (Zakharov, 1810), nicol and nickel (Dvigubsky, 1824) were used.

Niobium and tantalum (Nb), (Ta)

In 1801, the English chemist Charles Hatchet analyzed a black mineral stored in the British Museum and found back in 1635 in the territory of modern Massachusetts in the USA. Hatchet discovered an oxide of an unknown element in the mineral, which was named Columbia - in honor of the country where it was found (at that time the United States did not yet have an established name, and many called it Columbia after the discoverer of the continent). The mineral was called columbite. In 1802, the Swedish chemist Anders Ekeberg isolated another oxide from columbite, which stubbornly refused to dissolve (as they said then, become saturated) in any acid. The “legislator” in chemistry of those times, the Swedish chemist Jene Jakob Berzelius, proposed calling the metal contained in this oxide tantalum. Tantalus is a hero of ancient Greek myths; as punishment for his illegal actions, he stood up to his neck in water, towards which branches with fruits were leaning, but could neither get drunk nor get enough. Similarly, tantalum could not “get enough” of acid - it retreated from it, like water from Tantalum. The properties of this element were so similar to columbium that for a long time there was debate about whether columbium and tantalum were the same or different elements. It was not until 1845 that the German chemist Heinrich Rose resolved the dispute by analyzing several minerals, including columbite from Bavaria. He found that in fact there are two elements with similar properties. Hatchet's Columbia turned out to be a mixture of them, and the formula of columbite (more precisely, manganocolumbite) is (Fe,Mn)(Nb,Ta) 2 O 6 . Rose named the second element niobium, after Tantalus' daughter Niobe. However, the symbol Cb remained in the American tables of chemical elements until the middle of the 20th century: there it stood in place of niobium. And the name of Hatchet is immortalized in the name of the mineral Hatchite.

The following myth is associated with Niobe.

Both words (god Thor and "thunder") are associated with Celtic taranis(Irish) tarann) - thunder and god Taranis .

Titanium (Ti)

It is believed that this element was discovered by the German chemist Martin Klaproth. In 1795, he discovered an oxide of an unknown metal in the mineral rutile, which he called titanium. Titans are giants with whom the Olympian gods fought. Two years later, it turned out that the element “menakin”, which was discovered in 1791 by the English chemist William Gregor in the mineral ilmenite (FeTiO 3), is identical to Klaproth’s titanium.

In 1846, astronomers discovered a new planet predicted shortly before by the French astronomer Le Verrier. She was named Neptune - after the ancient Greek god of the underwater kingdom. When, in 1850, what was believed to be a new metal was discovered in a mineral brought to Europe from the United States, it was suggested by astronomers that it should be called neptunium. However, it soon became clear that it was niobium that had already been discovered earlier. “Neptunium” was forgotten for almost a century, until a new element was discovered in the products of uranium irradiation with neutrons. And just as in the solar system Uranus is followed by Neptune, so in the table of elements Neptunium (No. 93) appeared after uranium (No. 92).

In Roman mythology, Neptune is the god of seas and streams, identified with the Greek Poseidon. Neptune's wife was Salacia, identified with Thetis and Amphitrite. The nymph Vinilia, who personified the waves of the surf, belonged to the circle of the sea god.

In 1930, the ninth planet of the solar system was discovered, predicted by the American astronomer Lovell. She was named Pluto - after the ancient Greek god of the underworld. Therefore, it was logical to name the next element after neptunium plutonium; it was obtained in 1940 as a result of the bombardment of uranium with nuclei of deuterium - heavy hydrogen (hydrogen-3 isotope)

In Greek mythology, Pluto is one of the names of the ruler of the kingdom of the dead, Hades, meaning “rich.”

§4. Elements named for their properties or the properties of their compounds

If you understand what property of an element its name is associated with, how it is translated, what it means, then you can better understand the material of the chemistry of elements, understand and learn the properties of each individual substance or element.

Fluorine (F)

For a long time, only derivatives of this element were known, including extremely caustic hydrofluoric acid, which dissolves even glass and leaves very severe, difficult-to-heal burns on the skin. The nature of this acid was established in 1810 by the French physicist and chemist A.M. Ampere; he proposed a name for the corresponding element (which was isolated much later, in 1886): from the Greek. “fluoros” - destruction, death.

Chlorine (Cl)

In Greek, “chloros” means yellow-green. This is the color of this gas. The same root is in the word “chlorophyll” (from the Greek “chloros” and “phyllon” leaf). Initially, the element was named murine (muria - brine, salt water) after the name of its most common compound - sodium chloride, or table salt. But then, Davy, the scientist who first isolated chlorine, decided to rename the element based on the provisions of the nomenclature of the Paris Academy of Sciences, where it was preferable to name elements based on their properties.

Bromine (Br)

In Greek "bromos" means foul. The suffocating smell of bromine is similar to the smell of chlorine.

Osmium (Os)

In Greek "osme" means smell. Although the metal itself does not smell, the highly volatile osmium tetroxide OsO 4 has a rather unpleasant odor, similar to the smell of chlorine and garlic.

Iodine (I)

In Greek, "iodes" means purple. This is the color of the vapors of this element, as well as its solutions in non-solvating solvents (alkanes, carbon tetrachloride, etc.)

Chromium (Cr)

In Greek “chroma” means color, color. Many chromium compounds are brightly colored: oxides are green, black and red, hydrated Cr(III) salts are green and purple, and chromates and dichromates are yellow and orange.

Iridium (Ir)

The element is named essentially the same as chromium; in Greek “iris” (“iridos”) - rainbow, Iris - goddess of the rainbow, messenger of the gods. Indeed, crystalline IrCl is copper-red, IrCl 2 is dark green, IrCl 3 is olive green, IrCl 4 is brown, IrF 6 is yellow, IrS, Ir 2 O 3 and IrBr 4 are blue, IrO 2 is black. The word “iridization” is of the same origin - the iridescent coloring of the surface of some minerals, the edges of clouds, as well as “iris” (plant), “iris diaphragm” and even “iritis” - inflammation of the iris of the eye.

Rhodium (Rh)

The element was discovered in 1803 by the English chemist W.G. Wollaston. He dissolved native South American platinum in aqua regia; after neutralizing the excess acid with caustic soda and separating platinum and palladium, he was left with a pink-red solution of sodium hexachloride Na 3 RhCl 6 , from which the new metal was isolated. Its name is derived from the Greek words “rhodon” - rose and “rodeos” - rose-red.

Praseodymium and neodymium (Pr), (Nd)

In 1841, K. Mosander divided the "lanthanum earth" into two new "earths" (that is, oxides). One of them was lanthanum oxide, the other was very similar to it and was called “didymia” - from the Greek. "didimos" - twin. In 1882, K. Auer von Welsbach succeeded in dividing didymy into components. It turned out that this is a mixture of oxides of two new elements. One of them gave green salts, and Auer called this element praseodymium, that is, “green twin” (from the Greek “prazidos” - light green). The second element gave pink-red salts; it was called neodymium, that is, the “new twin.”

Thallium (Tl)

The English physicist and chemist William Crookes, a specialist in the field of spectral analysis, studying waste from sulfuric acid production, wrote on March 7, 1861 in a laboratory journal: “The green line in the spectrum, given by some portions of selenium residues, is not due to sulfur, selenium, tellurium; no calcium, barium, strontium; no potassium, sodium, lithium." Indeed, this was the line of a new element, the name of which is derived from the Greek thallos- green branch. Crookes approached the choice of the name romantically: “I chose this name because the green line corresponds to the spectrum and echoes the specific brightness of the fresh color of plants at the present time.”

Indium (In)

In 1863, in the German Journal of Practical Chemistry, a message appeared from the director of the Metallurgical Laboratory of the Freiberg Mining Academy F. Reich and his assistant T. Richter about the discovery of a new metal. While analyzing local polymetallic ores in search of newly discovered thallium, the authors "noticed a hitherto unknown indigo blue line." And then they write: “We received such a bright, sharp and stable blue line in the spectroscope that we without hesitation came to the conclusion about the existence of an unknown metal, which we propose to call indium.” Concentrates of salts of the new element were detected even without a spectroscope - by the intense blue color of the burner flame. This color was very similar to the color of indigo dye, hence the name of the element.

Rubidium and cesium (Rb), (Cs)

These are the first chemical elements discovered in the early 60s of the 18th century by G. Kirchhoff and R. Bunsen using the method they developed - spectral analysis. Cesium is named for the bright blue line in the spectrum (lat. caesius - blue), rubidium - for the lines in the red part of the spectrum (lat. rubidus- red). To obtain several grams of salts of new alkali metals, researchers processed 44 tons of mineral water from Durkheim and over 180 kg of lepidolite mineral - aluminosilicate composition K(Li,Al) 3 (Si,Al) 4 O 10 (F,OH) 2, in which Rubidium and cesium oxides are present as impurities.

Hydrogen and oxygen (H), (O)

These names are literal translations into Russian from Latin ( hydrogenium, oxygenium). They were invented by A.L. Lavoisier, who mistakenly believed that oxygen “gives birth” to all acids. It would be more logical to do the opposite: to call oxygen hydrogen (this element also “gives birth” to water), and hydrogen as oxygen, since it is part of all acids.

Nitrogen (N)

The French name of the element (azote) was also proposed by Lavoisier - from the Greek negative prefix “a” and the word “zoe” - life (the same root in the word “zoology” and its derivatives - zoo, zoogeography, zoomorphism, zooplankton, zootechnician, etc. .). The name is not entirely apt: nitrogen, although not suitable for respiration, is absolutely necessary for life, since it is part of any protein, any nucleic acid. Same origin and German name Stickstoff- asphyxiating substance. The root “azo” is present in the international names “azide”, “azo compound”, “azine” and others. But the Latin nitrogenium and English nitrogen come from the Hebrew “neter” (Greek “nitron”, lat. nitrum); This is how in ancient times they called natural alkali - soda, and later - saltpeter.

Radium and radon (Ra), (Rn)

Names common to all languages ​​come from Latin words radius- beam and radiare- emit rays. This is how the Curies, who discovered radium, identified its ability to emit invisible particles. The words “radio”, “radiation” and their countless derivatives have the same origin (more than a hundred such words can be found in dictionaries, ranging from outdated radiograms to modern radioecology). When radium decays, a radioactive gas is released, which is called radium emanation (from the Latin. emanatio- outflow), and then radon - by analogy with the names of a number of other noble gases (or perhaps simply by the initial and final letters of the English name proposed by E. Rutherford radium emanation).

Actinium and protactinium (Ac), (Pc)

The name of these radioactive elements is given by analogy with radium: in Greek “aktis” - radiation, light. Although protactinium was discovered in 1917, that is, 18 years later than actinium, in the so-called natural radioactive series of actinium (which begins with uranium-235) protactinium is located earlier; hence its name: from the Greek “protos” - first, initial, initial.

Astatine (At)

This element was obtained artificially in 1940 by irradiating bismuth with alpha particles at a cyclotron. But only seven years later, the authors of the discovery - American physicists D. Corson, K. Mackenzie and E. Segre gave this element a name derived from the Greek word “astatos” - unstable, shaky (the word “statics” and many of its derivatives have the same root) . The longest-lived isotope of the element has a half-life of 7.2 hours - then it seemed that this was very short.

Argon (Ar)

A noble gas isolated from the air in 1894 by English scientists J.W. Rayleigh and W. Ramsay, did not react with any substance, for which it received its name - from the Greek negative prefix “a” and the word “ergon” - business, activity. From this root comes the extra-systemic unit of energy erg, and the words “energy”, “energetic”, etc. The name “argon” was proposed by the chemist Mazan, who chaired the meeting of the British Association in Oxford, where Rayleigh and Ramsay made a presentation on the discovery of a new gas In 1904, the chemist Ramsay received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for the discovery of argon and other noble gases in the atmosphere, and the physicist John William Strett (Lord Rayleigh) in the same year and, in fact, for the same discovery received the Nobel Prize in Physics. This is probably the only case of this kind. While argon confirms its name, not a single stable compound has been obtained, except for inclusion compounds with phenol, hydroquinone, and acetone.

Platinum (Pt)

When the Spaniards in America in the middle of the 16th century became acquainted with a new metal, very similar to silver (in Spanish plata), they gave it a somewhat disparaging name platina, literally “little silver”, “little silver”. This is explained by the refractoriness of platinum (about 1770°C), which could not be remelted.

Molybdenum (Mo)

In Greek "molybdos" means lead, hence the Latin molybdaena- this is how in the Middle Ages they called the lead sheen PbS, and the rarer molybdenum sheen (MoS 2), and other similar minerals that left a black mark on paper, including graphite and lead itself (it’s not for nothing that pencil is called in German - Bleistift, that is, a lead rod). At the end of the 18th century, a new metal was isolated from molybdenum luster (molybdenite); at the suggestion of Y.Ya. Berzelius called it molybdenum.

Tungsten (W)

A mineral with this name has long been known in Germany. It is a mixed iron-manganese tungstate x FeWO 4 y MnWO4. Because of its heaviness, it was often mistaken for tin ore, from which, however, no metals were smelted. The suspicious attitude of miners towards this yet another “devilish” ore (remember nickel and cobalt) was reflected in its name: Wolf in German - wolf. What is "ram"? There is this version: in Old German Ramm- ram; it turns out that evil spirits “devour” the metal, like a wolf devours a ram. But we can also assume something else: in the South German, Swiss and Austrian dialects of the German language there is still a verb rahm(read “ram”), which means “skim off the cream”, “take the best part for yourself.” Then, instead of “wolves - sheep,” we get another version: the “wolf” takes the best part for itself and the miners have nothing left. The word “tungsten” is in German and Russian, while in English and French all that remains of it is the sign W in formulas and the name of the mineral wolframite; in other cases - only “tungsten”. This is what Berzelius once called the heavy mineral from which K.V. Scheele isolated tungsten oxide in 1781. In Swedish tung sten- a heavy stone, hence the name of the metal. By the way, this mineral (CaWO 4) was later named scheelite in honor of the scientist.

Zinc (Zn)

M. Lomonosov named the metal zinc from the German Zink. Possibly, this word comes from the ancient Germanic tinka- white, because the most common zinc compound - ZnO oxide (the "philosophical wool" of alchemists - perhaps this strange characteristic is associated with the appearance of this oxide) is white. Perhaps this word comes from the German zinke (“tooth-like”, “sharpened at the end” (“tooth” in German - zahn), because in its natural form, in crystals, zinc oxide really looks like metal needles. In Persian, seng means "stone" - this word can also be considered a possible ancestor of modern zinc.

Phosphorus (P)

When the Hamburg alchemist Henning Brand discovered the white modification of phosphorus in 1669, he was amazed by its glow in the dark (in fact, it is not phosphorus that glows, but its vapors when oxidized by atmospheric oxygen). The new substance received a name, which translated from Greek means “light-carrying.” So "traffic light" is linguistically the same as "phosphorus". By the way, the Greeks called the morning Venus Phosphoros, which foreshadowed the sunrise.

Arsenic (As)

The Russian name is most likely associated with the poison used to poison mice; among other things, the color of gray arsenic resembles a mouse. Latin arsenicum goes back to the Greek “arsenikos” - masculine, probably due to the strong effect of the compounds of this element. Thanks to fiction, everyone knows what they were used for.

Antimony (Sb)

In chemistry, this element has three names. The Russian word “antimony” comes from the Turkish “surme” - rubbing or blackening eyebrows in ancient times, the paint for this was finely ground black antimony sulfide Sb 2 S 3 (“You fast, don’t tar your eyebrows.” - M. Tsvetaeva). Latin name of the element ( stibium) comes from the Greek “stibi” - a cosmetic product for lining the eyes and treating eye diseases. Salts of antimony acid are called antimonites, the name is possibly associated with the Greek “antemon” - a flower - an intergrowth of needle-shaped crystals of antimony luster Sb 2 S 2 similar to flowers.

Bismuth (Bi)

This is probably a corruption of German " Weisse Masse“- white mass, white nuggets of bismuth with a reddish tint have been known since ancient times. By the way, in Western European languages ​​(except German) the name of the element begins with “b” ( bismuth). Replacing the Latin “b” with the Russian “v” is a common phenomenon Abel- Abel, Basil- Basil, basilisk- basilisk, Barbara- Varvara, barbarism- barbarism, Benjamin- Benjamin, Bartholomew- Bartholomew, Babylon- Babylon, Byzantium- Byzantium, Lebanon- Lebanon, Libya- Libya, Baal- Baal, alphabet- alphabet... Perhaps the translators believed that the Greek “beta” is the Russian “v”.

Lithium (Li)

When in 1817 Berzelius's student, the Swedish chemist I.A. Arfvedson discovered a new “fire-resistant alkali of still unknown nature” in one of the minerals; his teacher suggested calling it “lithion” - from the Greek “lithos” - stone, since this alkali, unlike the already known sodium and potassium alkalis, was first discovered in the “kingdom” of stones. The name “lithium” was assigned to the element. The same Greek root is in the words “lithosphere”, “lithography” (imprint from a stone mold) and others.

Sodium (Na)

In the 18th century, the name “natron” was assigned to “mineral alkali” - caustic soda. Now in chemistry, “sodium lime” is a mixture of sodium and calcium hydroxides. So sodium and nitrogen - two completely dissimilar elements - appear to have something in common (based on their Latin names nitrogenium And sodium) origin. English and French element names ( sodium) probably originated from the Arabic “suvwad” - this is what the Arabs called a coastal sea plant, the ash of which, unlike most other plants, contains not potassium carbonate, but sodium carbonate, that is, soda.

Potassium (K)

In Arabic, “al-kali” is a product obtained from plant ash, that is, potassium carbonate. Until now, rural residents use this ash to feed plants with potassium; for example, sunflower ash contains more than 30% potassium. English element name potassium, like the Russian “potash”, is borrowed from the languages ​​of the Germanic group; in German and Dutch ash- ash, pot- a pot, that is, potash is “ash from a pot.” Previously, potassium carbonate was obtained by evaporating the extract from ash in vats.

Calcium (Ca)

Romans in a word calx(genus case calcis) called all soft stones. Over time, this name was assigned only to limestone (not without reason chalk in English - chalk). The same word was used for lime, a product of calcination of calcium carbonate. Alchemists called the firing process itself calcination. Hence soda ash is an anhydrous sodium carbonate obtained by calcination of crystalline carbonate Na 2 CO 3 ·10H 2 O. Calcium was first obtained from lime in 1808 by G. Davy, who also gave the name to the new element. Calcium is a relative of the calculator: among the Romans calculus(diminutive of calx) - small pebble, pebble. Such pebbles were used for simple calculations using a board with slots - an abacus, the ancestor of Russian abacus. All these words left their mark in European languages. Yes, in English calx- scale, ash, and lime; calcimine- lime mortar for whitewashing; calcination- calcination, roasting; calculus- kidney stones, bladder stones, as well as calculus (differential and integral) in higher mathematics; calculate- calculate, count. In modern Italian, which is closest to Latin, calcolo is both a calculation and a stone.

Barium (Ba)

In 1774, Swedish chemists K.V. Scheele and Yu.G. Gan isolated a new “earth” from the heavy spar mineral (BaSO 4), which was called barite; in Greek “baros” means heaviness, “baris” means heavy. When a new metal was isolated from this “earth” (BaO) in 1808 using electrolysis, it was called barium. So barium also has unexpected and practically unrelated “relatives”; among them - barometer, barograph, pressure chamber, baritone - low (“heavy”) voice, baryons - heavy elementary particles.

Boron (B)

The Arabs used the word “burak” to call many white salts soluble in water. One of these salts is borax, a natural sodium tetraborate Na 2 B 4 O 7 10H 2 O. Boric acid was obtained from borax in 1702 by calcination, and from it in 1808 L. Gay-Lussac and L. Tenard independently each other A new element, boron, was isolated from a friend.

Aluminum (Al)

It was discovered by the physicist and chemist X.K. Oersted in 1825. The name comes from Latin aluminum(genus case aluminis) - the so-called alum (double potassium-aluminum sulfate KAl(SO 4) 2 · 12H 2 O), they were used as a mordant when dyeing fabrics. The Latin name probably goes back to the Greek “halme” - brine, salt solution.

Lanthanum (La)

In 1794, the Finnish chemist J. Gadolin discovered a new “yttrium earth” in the mineral cerite. Nine years later, in the same mineral, J. Berzelius and W. Hisinger found another “earth”, which they called cerium. From these “earths” oxides of a number of rare earth elements were subsequently isolated. One of them, discovered in 1839, at the suggestion of Berzelius, was called lanthanum - from the Greek. “lantanane” - to hide: the new element was “hiding” from chemists for decades.

Silicon (Si)

The Russian name of the element, given to it by G.I. Hess in 1831, comes from the Old Slavonic word “flint” - hard stone. This is the origin of Latin silicium(and international "silicate"): silex- stone, cobblestone, as well as cliff, rock. The names are related to each other - after all, there are no soft rocks...

Zirconium (Zr)

The name comes from the Persian “tsargun” - painted in golden color. One of the varieties of the zircon mineral (ZrSiO 4) - the hyacinth gemstone - has this color. Zirconium dioxide (“zircon earth”) was isolated from Ceylon zircon in 1789 by the German chemist M.G. Klaproth.

Technetium (Tc)

The name reflects the artificial production of this element: minute quantities of technetium were synthesized in 1936 by irradiating molybdenum in a cyclotron with deuterium nuclei. In Greek "technetos" means "artificial"

Conclusion

This work and the materials used to create it can be used to prepare for exams, to examine the elements being studied from an unusual angle compared to the standard method, or to prepare for Olympiads, where it is necessary to demonstrate in-depth knowledge of the subject.

At the moment there is no generally accepted division of elements according to etymology, so we propose our own. We divided the elements into 5 groups according to the subject of the name: toponyms; elements named after the researchers who discovered them; elements having mythological roots; elements named after their properties or the way they are opened.

However, there were several elements, such as: Plutonium, Neptunium, Uranus, which were problematic to attribute to any specific group: on the one hand, these are the names of ancient gods, and it is logical to attribute them to elements associated with myths. But on the other hand, these are the names of planets, and it makes sense to classify them as toponymic elements.

As for each specific group, we made the following conclusions.

By place-name elements: these elements were named after geographical objects for several reasons: either this was the place where the element was directly discovered, or the scientist wanted to indicate the significance of this place for himself and for science. These names were more relevant earlier than today, due to the fact that the elements that are discovered in modern times do not exist in nature - they are synthesized in large nuclear research institutes.

For elements named after mythological heroes: the names of these elements contain a reference to their properties. But why couldn’t scientists simply name the elements by their properties, but decided to name them by the names of some ancient heroes? We concluded that scientists of the 18th-19th centuries. they were very versatile and erudite people, interested in various areas of knowledge, without being confined to their specialization, which, unfortunately, is very common these days.

Regarding elements named after scientists: We noticed that there are not many elements named after scientists. Apparently, in the scientific community it is not customary to immortalize oneself in the name of one’s own discovery. In addition, only a few elements, such as mendelevium, were named after chemists. Most of these elements are named after physicists. And in general, in order to name an element in honor of the one who discovered it, some time must pass so that people can appreciate the discovery and only then immortalize the researcher in the name of the element.

It is interesting that if previously a scientist himself could come up with the name of an element or coordinate this issue with the relevant authorities, now, due to the complexity of the process of synthesizing new elements, entire institutes have the right to be called the authors of the discovery. Now there is a special organization - IUPAC (English) - International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry - which deals with issues of element nomenclature. Whole meetings of scientists from different countries gather, where names for the new element are discussed, and in the end a decision is made. Of course, priority in naming the element is given to the discovering country.

For elements whose names are associated with their properties: such names can be given to elements based on external signs and after the first reactions on the corresponding substance. Now such names are not given to elements due to the impossibility of studying the physical or chemical properties of elements, because they are synthesized in quantities of several atoms in special nuclear research institutes.

Bibliography

1. I.V. Petryanov-Sokolov “Popular library of chemical elements” in 2 parts (Moscow, Nauka, 1983)

2. J. Emsley “Elements” (Moscow, Mir, 1993)

3. Kondrashov A.P. “Who's Who in Classical Mythology” (Moscow, Ripol Classic, 2002)

4. Leenson I.A. “Where does your name come from?” article in the periodical “Chemistry and Life”, (Moscow, No. 3 (2004))

5. N.A. Figurovsky "Discovery of elements and the origin of their names" (Moscow, Nauka, 1970)

The periodic table of elements was the first natural classification of chemical elements, showing that they are interrelated with each other, and also served as a basis for further research.

When Mendeleev compiled his table based on the periodic law he discovered, many elements were still unknown. Like, for example, the three elements of the 4th period. Presumably the elements were called ekaboron (its properties should resemble boron), ekaaluminum, ecasilicium. Within 15 years, Mendeleev's predictions were confirmed. French chemist Lecoq de Boisbaudran discovered gallium, which has all the properties of eka-aluminium, L.F. Nilson discovered scandium, and K.A. Winkler discovered the element germanium, which has the properties of eca-silicon.

The discovery of Ga, Sc, Ge is proof of the existence of the periodic law. The periodic system was also of great importance in establishing the valency and atomic masses of some elements, correcting some of them. Transuranium elements have now been created based on the periodic law.

End of work -

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General characteristics of the boron subgroup
The external electronic configuration of all elements of the subgroup is s2p1. A characteristic property of subgroup IIIA is the complete absence of metallic properties in boron and ti

Aluminum. Application of aluminum and its alloys
Aluminum is located in the 3rd group of the main subgroup, in the 3rd period. Serial number 13. Atomic mass ~27. P-element. Electronic configuration: 1s22s22p63s23p1.On out

Aluminum oxide and hydroxide
Aluminum oxide – Al2O3. Physical properties: aluminum oxide is a white amorphous powder or very hard white crystals. Molecular weight = 101.96, density – 3.97

General characteristics of the chromium subgroup
The elements of the chromium subgroup occupy an intermediate position in the series of transition metals. They have high melting and boiling points, free spaces on electronic

Chromium oxides and hydroxides
Chromium forms three oxides: CrO, Cr2O3 and CrO3. Chromium II oxide (CrO) – basic oxide – black powder. Strong reducing agent. CrO dissolves in dilute hydrochloric acid

Chromates and dichromates
Chromates are salts of chromic acid H2Cr04, which exists only in aqueous solutions with a concentration of no more than 75%. The valence of chromium in chromates is 6. Chromates are

General characteristics of the iron family
The iron family is part of a secondary subgroup of the eighth group and is the first triad in it, including iron, cobalt, nickel

Iron compounds
Iron (II) oxide FeO is a black crystalline substance, insoluble in water and alkalis. FeO corresponds to the base Fe(OH)2.

Domain process
The blast furnace process is the smelting of pig iron in a blast furnace. The blast furnace is lined with refractory bricks with a height of 30 m and an internal diameter of 12 m. The upper half is w

Cast iron and steel
Iron alloys are metal systems whose main component is iron. Classification of iron alloys: 1) alloys of iron with carbon (n

Heavy water
Heavy water is deuterium oxide D2O with oxygen of natural isotopic composition, a colorless, odorless and tasteless liquid. Heavy water was open

Chemical and physical properties
Heavy water has a boiling point of 101.44 °C and a melting point of 3.823 °C. D2O crystals have the same structure as regular ice crystals, the difference is in size

Salts of hydrochloric acid
Salts of hydrochloric acid or chlorides are chlorine compounds with all elements having a lower electronegativity value. Metal chlorides