State. The general characteristics of the motivation process can be represented by defining the concepts used to explain it: needs, motives, goals

Needs are the state of a person experiencing a need for an object necessary for his existence. Needs are the source of human activity, the reason for his purposeful actions.

Motives are a person’s motivation to act, aimed at a result (goal).

Goals are a desired object or its state that a person strives to possess.

Exist various ways motivation, including:

Persuasion is inducing a person to behave in a certain way by psychological impact, suggestion, information, etc.;

coercion - the use of censure and the application of punishment in the event of an employee’s failure to comply with management requirements;

Stimulation is an indirect influence on a person through a change in external circumstances, the use of incentives (for example, a change in salary, the provision/deprivation of certain opportunities, material assets, etc.) that encourage expected actions.

Incentives and motives serve as the main levers of motivation. In the specialized literature, these concepts are often (and erroneously) used as identical, but they must be distinguished: a motive characterizes the employee’s desire to obtain certain benefits, and an incentive implies these benefits themselves.

In the current economic situation, it is quite difficult to achieve maximum dedication from employees through material incentives alone. All the more attention should be paid to non-material incentives, creating a flexible system of benefits, humanizing working conditions.

Both theoretical research and practice show: a person works not only for money. Unfortunately, many managers believe that the most effective incentive is money (“envelopes”). Meanwhile, it is known that for most people the concept of “remuneration for labor” is much broader: it includes not only fair and timely paid wages, but also quality organization all stages of work, achieving high results. Non-material motivation methods increase employee loyalty no less, and sometimes more significantly, than material ones.

The acceptance by employees of common goals (production, constructive, creative) significantly affects the overall team spirit of the team, unites people, and motivates them to work in this particular organization. It is very important to take into account the inherent desire of every person for a higher social status, the desire to gain authority among other people. The Corporate Code is aimed, first of all, at ensuring that each employee understands his involvement in the work of the company and is personally interested in the high results of its activities.

Motivating yourself and other people is not the easiest task. In this matter, it seems to me that you need to show maximum ingenuity in order to force yourself, for example, to start working and stop being lazy. But is it really that complicated? After all, it is possible that if you more knowledge on the topic of motivating yourself and other people, everything would become much simpler, and the work, which seemingly cannot budge, would be in full swing. In this article we will try to understand why so many people have problems motivating themselves and others by briefly examining several existing theories of motivation.

Don’t rush through the lines without consciously understanding the theories outlined below; it is possible that some of them will seem too intricate and unsightly to you, but this is only at first. These are generally accepted theories that are used by managers at various levels, and used with success, please note that knowing about them can actually help you motivate yourself and others, at work or at home. For my part, I will try to present the theories of motivation in the most in simple words, so that any of you, even those interested in this issue for the first time, can understand and, possibly, apply them in practice.

Motivation theory: Cognitive dissonance

The word “cognitive” comes from the English word “cognition”, which means “cognition”. Cognition is an element of knowledge: attitude, emotion, belief, value, behavior and other forms of knowledge. Dissonance is a disturbance, or in this case, a state of stress and anxiety, which occurs as a result of two elements of knowledge contradicting each other. Classic example Cognitive dissonance is the behavior of a smoker faced with conflicting information. On the one hand, he learns that smoking is harmful to his health, but on the other hand, he is deeply convinced that it brings him pleasure, relieves unnecessary stress, or is a reason to socialize with friends.

Your body's natural reaction to the contradiction of two beliefs is stress and a desperate search by your subconscious or conscious mind for the least significant belief. Using the example of smoking, two elements of cognition enter the “battlefield”: “smoking is harmful to health” and “smoking brings me pleasure.” Then, in order to reduce anxiety, the less stable of the two beliefs must be repressed, changed or ignored. If the subconscious mind does this without your conscious participation, this process will be called repression, but if you consciously displace the “inconvenient” belief from your consciousness, it will be called suppression.

Motivation Theory: Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs

American psychologist Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs is composed of six interdependent levels of basic human needs. Each level of Maslow's hierarchy below is the basis for the emergence of motivation at a higher level, well, at a higher level, motivation cannot be strong enough until the needs at a lower level are satisfied. Let's take a closer look at this hierarchy, starting from the lowest level.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs:

1. Physiological level - food, shelter, clothing.
2. Level of security - from predators, their own kind, and so on.
3. Love and belonging – relationships.
4. Prosperity, prestige and honor - position in society.
5. Level of knowledge – thirst for knowledge, curiosity.
6. Self-realization – creativity.

It goes without saying that you will have no or minimal motivation to seek knowledge or to express yourself until the basic needs at the first levels are satisfied. Particularly noteworthy here is the physiological level and the level of safety, on which our survival directly depends. On the other hand, often more low levels are satisfied by working at higher levels, which, however, does not make Maslow’s theory untenable, but requires more detailed consideration.

Motivation theory - Alderfer's ERG theory

ERG theory is an acronym for Alderfer's three levels of needs: Existense, Relatedness and Growtn. Alderfer's theory, rather, is a modified or modernized (whatever you want) Maslow's theory, simplified to three levels.

The first two needs of Maslow’s hierarchy are combined into the needs of existence, the second two needs into the need for connectedness, and the third pair of needs into growth and self-development:

Existence is a need for survival.
Connectedness – isolation and connectedness.
Growth – learning something new, increasing needs.

Thus, satisfying needs at the level of existence leads to the emergence of a need for connectedness - communication between people, the satisfaction of needs at which leads to the emergence of needs at the level of growth - a thirst for knowledge, self-expression.

Motivation Theory: Goal Theory

There is an assumption that people strive to satisfy certain final states, or to achieve a completed form or state. Thus, seeing an unsolved problem in front of him, a person feels the desire to solve it. When asking a question or hearing a riddle, a person strives to find the answer. A handful of objects that can be collected into one whole must be collected, chaos must turn into order. Goal theory suggests three main elements for determining the degree of motivation, here they are.

Duration. How much time does it take to solve the task assigned to us? That is, how much time should pass from the beginning of our actions to the receipt of the result, and, consequently, the reward. This is a fairly significant factor, especially for children and adolescents who do not yet have the proper level of understanding of time. By the way, this is one of the reasons why it is so difficult to get a child to study and so easy to get excited about playing.

Difficulty level. The task should be simple enough to make you want to achieve it, but challenging enough that you won't get bored. If a problem seems insurmountable, a person loses all desire to overcome it. Often the only way motivation for decision big problem is to split it into several small tasks.

Specificity. What's the point of doing something if we don't know why we're doing it? Therefore, the end state must be clearly defined and understood. Ideally, a person should imagine with all his senses the state of completion of the task assigned to him and the brighter these feelings, the higher the motivation.

From all this it becomes clear that the highest level of motivation can be achieved if the task is short enough in duration, moderately complex and solvable, and the result is clear and definite.

Motivation theory: Achievement motivation theory

The theory of achievement motivation is based on David McClelland's assumption that there are three factors that influence human motivation, namely: the need for achievement, the thirst for power and the desire to belong. The influence of each of these factors varies in intensity among different people. Let's look at these factors in a little more detail:

Need for achievement. It can be either very low or very high; the need for achievement is associated with the complexity of the task chosen by the person. People with low need for achievement tend to choose too simple tasks to avoid failure, or too complex to avoid embarrassment in case of failure. People with a high need for achievement tend to choose tasks of average complexity.

Thirst for power. People with a high level of thirst for power experience satisfaction from the process of influencing their environment and moving it in the direction that they choose. The thirst for power makes a person feel a strong need to control the situations and circumstances in which they find themselves, and this is one of the main sources of motivation for them.

The desire to belong. The desire to interact with other people and achieve goals through common efforts. A sense of belonging and belonging to a particular social group brings a person a feeling of happiness. This need is not uncommon among extroverts, and is less pronounced among introverts.

At one time or another you experience each of these needs, however, to varying degrees. As usual, throughout our adult life we ​​are guided by one of these needs, but which one is determined by upbringing.

Naturally this is not full list existing theories of motivation, but quite sufficient for you, based on them, to find and apply your own motivation techniques. We will analyze some of the theories listed above in more detail, and it is also possible that over time this list will be replenished. Good luck and rapid achievements to you!

Management decision- is the result of specific management activities of management. Decision making is the basis of management. Making and making decisions is creative process in the activities of managers at any level, including:

development and goal setting;

studying the problem based on the information received;

selection and justification of efficiency criteria (effectiveness) and possible consequences the decision being made;

discussion with specialists various options solving a problem (task); selection and formulation of the optimal solution; decision-making;

specification of the solution for its implementers.

Management technology considers a management decision as a process consisting of three stages: preparation of a decision: decision making; implementation of the solution.

On preparation stage management decision, an economic analysis of the situation is carried out at the micro and macro level, including search, collection and processing of information, and problems that require solutions are identified and formed.

On decision making stages the development and evaluation of alternative solutions and courses of action carried out on the basis of multivariate calculations is carried out; criteria for choosing the optimal solution are selected; choosing and making the best decision.

On stages of solution implementation measures are taken to concretize the decision and bring it to the attention of the executors, the progress of its implementation is monitored, the necessary adjustments are made and an assessment is given of the result obtained from the implementation of the decision. Each management decision has its own specific result, therefore the goal of management activity is to find such forms, methods, means and tools that could help achieve the optimal result in specific conditions and circumstances.

Management decisions can be justified, made on the basis of economic analysis and multivariate calculation, and intuitive, which, although they save time, contain the possibility of errors and uncertainty.

Decisions made must be based on reliable, current and predictable information, analysis of all factors influencing decisions, taking into account the anticipation of its possible consequences.

Managers are obliged to constantly and comprehensively study incoming information in order to prepare and make management decisions based on it, which must be coordinated at all levels of the intra-company hierarchical management pyramid.

The amount of information that needs to be processed to develop effective management decisions is so great that it has long exceeded human capabilities. It is the difficulties of managing modern large-scale production that have led to the widespread use of electronic computer technology, the development automated systems management, which required the creation of a new mathematical apparatus and economic and mathematical methods.

Decision making methods, aimed at achieving the intended goals, can be different:

1) a method based on the manager’s intuition, which is determined by his previously accumulated experience and amount of knowledge in a specific field of activity, which helps to choose and make the right decision;
2) a method based on the concept of “common sense”, when the manager, when making decisions, justifies them with consistent evidence, the content of which is based on his accumulated practical experience;
3) a method based on a scientific and practical approach, involving a choice optimal solutions based on processing large amounts of information, helping to justify decisions made. This method requires the use of modern technical means and, above all, electronic computer technology. The problem of a manager choosing a solution is one of the most important in modern management science. It presupposes the need for a comprehensive assessment of the specific situation by the leader himself and his independence in making one of several possible decisions.

Since the manager has the opportunity to choose decisions, he is responsible for their implementation. The decisions made are sent to the executive bodies and are subject to control over their implementation. Therefore, management must be purposeful, the purpose of management must be known. In a management system, the principle of selecting a decision to be made from a specific set of decisions must be observed. The more choice, the more effective management. When choosing a management decision, the following requirements are imposed on it: validity of the decision; optimal choice; legality of the decision; brevity and clarity; specificity in time; targeting to performers; efficiency of execution.

Transfer of equipment from one technical condition(TC) to another usually occurs due to damage or failure.

Damage is an event consisting in a violation of the serviceable condition of an object when stored working condition.

If damaged, the operability of the object is maintained, but over time, the damage can turn into a failure, as a result of which the operability will be impaired. For example, a scratch on protective coating printed circuit board At first it does not interfere with the operation of the device, but after certain time under the influence of contamination, moisture and other factors, a short circuit of the conductors may occur in this place, which will lead to failure of the device.

A failure is an event that involves a violation of the operational state of an object. The failure criterion is a sign or set of signs of a malfunction of an object, established in the regulatory, technical and (or) design (project) documentation.

Along with the concepts of “damage” and “failure”, the concepts of “defect” and “malfunction” are used in reliability theory and technical diagnostics.

A defect is each individual non-compliance of an object with established requirements. If there is a defect, it means that at least one of the quality indicators or parameters of the object has exceeded the limit value or one of the requirements of regulatory documentation is not met. The term “defect” is mainly used when monitoring the quality of a product (object) at the manufacturing stage, as well as during repairs, for example, when defecting an object, when compiling lists of defects and quality control of a repaired object.

The defect may be constructive (in case of non-compliance with the requirements terms of reference or rules for the development of an object) and production (in case of non-compliance with the requirements of regulatory documentation for the manufacture and delivery of an object). Examples of defects include the size of a part being out of tolerance, incorrect assembly or adjustment of the device, a scratch on the protective coating, etc.

A malfunction means that an object (product) is in out of order. This term is used when using, storing and transporting objects (products). While in a faulty state, an object may have one or more defects. Unlike the term “defect,” the term “malfunction” does not apply to all objects. Thus, unacceptable deviations in the parameters of materials, fuels, and chemical products are not called malfunctions.

The difference between serviceability and performance is that serviceability is determined by the fulfillment of basic requirements, and serviceability is determined by the fulfillment of both basic and secondary ones. Therefore, the concept of “serviceability” is broader than the concept of “operability”. Indeed, if a device is in working order, then it is necessarily operational; a working device may also be faulty.

In accordance with GOST 27.002-89, the following types of condition of technical objects are distinguished.

Serviceable condition is the condition of an object in which it meets all the requirements of regulatory, technical and (or) design (project) documentation. The condition of an object in which it does not comply with at least one of the requirements of regulatory, technical and (or) design (project) documentation is called faulty.

Operable is the state of an object in which the values ​​of all parameters characterizing its ability to perform specified functions comply with the requirements of regulatory and technical and (or) design (project) documentation. Inoperable is understood to be a state of an object in which the value of at least one parameter characterizing its ability to perform specified functions does not meet the requirements of regulatory, technical and (or) design (project) documentation.

A limit state is a state of an object in which its further operation is unacceptable or impractical, or restoring its operational state is impossible or impractical.

When diagnosing objects, the concept of correct or incorrect functioning is used.

The state of proper functioning is a state in which the object used for its intended purpose as a whole or its component performed in this moment time, the functioning algorithms prescribed by him with parameter values ​​that meet the established requirements. Accordingly, in a state of malfunction, the object does not perform the prescribed functioning algorithms with the required parameter values.

There may be cases when significant damage occurs in that part of the object that is not involved in ensuring this mode. As a result, an inoperable object, taking into account all operating modes, can be in a state of correct functioning. For example, a system for automatically keeping a vessel on course (autopilot), working in a tracking or simple mode, is in proper functioning mode. home Feedback according to the ship's heading may be inoperative and therefore does not participate in these modes together with the correction unit.

The entire set of possible TS of an object can be divided into subsets of states of correct and incorrect functioning.

Let's consider the relationship between the selected subsets of the vehicle (Fig. 3.1).

Let the area occupied by the rectangular figure B in the diagram characterize the set of all possible types of technical condition of the object, and the areas of the figures I, R and PF correspond to the subsets of the states of serviceable, efficient and properly functioning (in a certain mode) object.

The areas that complement the areas of the figures I, R and PF to the area B will be denoted as I, R and PF. They correspond to subsets of the states of a faulty, inoperative and malfunctioning object, respectively.

Using the symbolism of set theory, we write the relations for subsets included in each other:

A serviceable object is always operational and functions correctly; a faulty object can also be operational and function correctly.

Combining subsets and their complements results in a complete (main) set:

The figure shows three typical intersections of subsets:

- a subset of states of a faulty but functional object (in the diagram this is the area with double hatching);

- a subset of states of an inoperative but correctly functioning object.

A functional object can be faulty, but still function correctly. An inoperative object is always faulty, but it may still function correctly in some mode.

Functioning correctly in this mode the object may be faulty and, taking into account all modes, inoperable. A malfunctioning object is always faulty and inoperable.

Serviceability and malfunction, performance and inoperability, correct and incorrect functioning - these are enlarged technical categories that determine the type of technical condition.

To facilitate the diagnostic task, each type of technical condition is divided into groups of conditions that are characterized by certain general properties. The transition of an object naturally from one group to another means the appearance of a set of physical defects, recognized as a generalized defect.

The condition of an object is recognized accurate to the type when checking it and accurate to the group when searching for a defect. If, as a result of the check, it is determined that the object is operable, you can determine the group (degree) of its operability. If an object is recognized as inoperable, then the defect is searched with an accuracy of the inoperability group, i.e., to a generalized significant defect.

It should be noted that failure of an object may occur as a result of the presence of one or more defects, but the appearance of defects does not always mean that a failure has occurred. Thus, a defect, like a malfunction, depending on its impact on the technical condition of an object, can mean both damage and failure. In the future, when diagnosing objects, defects leading to the failure of an individual element or the system as a whole will be considered.

The level of technical condition of an object (see Fig. 3.1) is reduced under the influence of operational factors leading to damage, failure and transition to a limit state due to an irreparable violation of safety requirements, reduced operational efficiency, obsolescence, etc. The level of technical condition is increased by carrying out Maintenance and repairs. So, if the tracking system in the gyrocompass stops working, we should talk about a failure, since one of the basic requirements for normal operation gyrocompass, and such a device cannot be used until the cause of the failure is eliminated.

If one of the signal lights on the navigation console burns out, this is not a failure, but damage, since the serviceability of only one part of the device is impaired and the gyrocompass remains operational.

natural objects and systems) - qualitative and quantitative characteristics of many of their functional and integrative real and potential capabilities, many of their features, parameters in space and time (see, for example, stationary state).

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STATE

a set of basic parameters and characteristics of an object, phenomenon or process at a certain moment (or interval) of time. The existence of this object, phenomenon or process appears as an unfolding, a consistent change of its states. The concept of state has extremely wide application. Thus, they talk about the gaseous state of a substance, the state of body movement, the sick state of a person, the state of morality in society, etc.

The concept is especially important for characterizing dynamic systems. It appears as the implementation at some point in time of parameters (properties) that determine the behavior and development of the system. The laws of system dynamics are the laws of interrelation of states in time. The connection of states is usually characterized as an expression of the principle of causality: some initial state of the system, in combination with external influences that the system experiences in the period of time under consideration, is the cause of its subsequent states. The concept of state is central to the study of changes, movement and development of objects and systems. The solution to specific research problems is based, on the one hand, on the knowledge and application of relevant laws, and on the other, on setting the initial conditions. “The world is very complex,” noted E. Wigner, “and the human mind is clearly not able to fully comprehend it. That is why man came up with an artificial technique - to blame the complex nature of the world on what is usually called random - and so on. was able to identify an area that can be described using simple patterns. The complexities are called initial conditions, and what is abstracted from the random is called the laws of nature. No matter how artificial such a division of the world may seem in the most impartial approach, and even despite the fact that the possibility of its implementation has its limits, the abstraction underlying such a division is one of the most fruitful ideas put forward by the human mind. It was she who made it possible to create natural sciences” (Wigner E. Etudes on symmetry. M., 1971, p. 9). Setting the initial conditions is essentially setting a certain initial state of the system under study, which is necessary for its further analysis.

When determining the initial (initial) state, it is necessary to take into account the laws of interrelations of system parameters, the presence of which leads to the fact that to describe the initial state it is necessary to set the values ​​of only independent parameters. It should, however, be taken into account that there are also subordination, hierarchical dependencies between the parameters of the systems. To describe the states of especially complex, multi-level systems, it is necessary to specify the structure and structural characteristics. Thus, in statistical systems, states are not determined by specifying characteristics individual elements or individual states of each element, and in the language of probability distributions - through the characteristics of the type, type of distributions. In complex systems, states are defined on the basis of more general characteristics related to more high levels organization of systems. Thus, ideas about states are correlated with the analysis of the deep properties of the systems under study.

The concept of state is one of the key ones for characterizing nonlinear systems and interactions. The properties of nonlinear systems depend on their state. Their most important feature is their violation of the principle of superposition: the result of one of the influences in the presence of another is not the same as it would have been if this other influence had been absent. In other words, the additivity of causes leads to the additivity of effects. In nonlinear systems overall result a number of impacts on the system (its final state) is not determined simple summation existing influences, but also their mutual influence. Almost everything is nonlinear physical systems; This is even more typical for chemical, biological and social systems, which are characterized by qualitative transformations. The behavior of systems as their complexity increases is increasingly determined by their internal dynamics, which gives rise to processes of self-organization. The states of systems change under the influence of not only external influences, but also for internal reasons. The emphasis on these internal foundations is reflected in the fact that primary attention begins to be paid to such concepts and ideas as instability, nonequilibrium, irreversibility, self-reinforcing processes, bifurcations, multivariate paths of change and development.

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2.What parts does a file name consist of?
3.Who or what names the file?
4.Who or what assigns a file extension?
5.How many characters can a file name include?
6.How many characters are usually allocated for a file extension?
7.What needs to be done with the disk so that files can be stored on it?
8.What areas is the disk divided into when formatting?
9.In what case file system is it single-level?
10.How to write down the path to a file?
11.What kind of software does the operating system belong to?
12. What information should the operating system have to organize access to files?

13.Where is the work in progress stored? this moment program and processed data?
14.What is a catalog called?
15.When carried out bootstrap operating system?
16.What is an operating system?
17.How the name is indicated logical drive?
18.Which directory is called the root?
19.What is the state of the operating system called when it stops producing results and responding to requests?
20.What happens to OS files during the boot process?
21. The user, moving from one directory to another, sequentially visited the directories LESSONS, CLASS, SCHOOL, D:\, MYDOC, LETTERS. With each move, the user either went down to a lower level in the directory, or went up to a higher level. What's it like full name the directory from which the user started moving?

1) D:\MYDOC\LETTERS

2) D:\SCHOOL\CLASS\LESSONS

3) D:\LESSONS\CLASS\SCHOOL

22. Determine which of the specified file names does not satisfy the mask: ?*di.t?*

4) melodi.theme

23.The file Literature_List.txt is stored in a certain directory. In this directory, we created a subdirectory named 10_CLASS and moved the file List_literature.txt into it. After which the full file name became D:\SCHOOL\PHYSICS\10_CLASS\Literature_list.txt.

What is the full name of the directory where the file was stored before it was moved?
1) D:\SCHOOL\PHYSICS\10_CLASS

2) D:\SCHOOL\PHYSICS

24. Which of the files matches the mask??P*.A??:

1) What is range? How is it designated?

2) What is the principle of relative addressing? In what situations does it appear?

3) Cell D7 contains the formula (C3+C5)/D6. How does it change when you move this formula to a cell:
a) D8; b) E7; c) C6; d) F10.

1)What is information?

2) What actions can we perform with information?

3)How and where can we store information?

4) What types of storage media exist?

5)How can we transfer information?

6)What is a code?

7)What is coding?

8) Encode the word: Ivanov Ivan.

9) How else do you think information can be encoded?

10)What is hardware?

11)What is software?

12) What is a processor, why is it needed?

13) Why are fans needed in a computer?

14) What do you need a printer, scanner, mouse, keyboard and speakers for?