Domestic calculators and their foreign analogues. History in pictures
22/09/98)
This article is dedicated to the indispensable assistants in our lives - microcalculators. The history of the emergence of Soviet microcalculators, their features and interesting capabilities of individual models is described.
THE FIRST COMPUTERS
The first mechanical device in Russia to automate calculations was the abacus. This “people's calculator” lasted in the workplaces of cashiers in stores until the mid-nineties. It is interesting to note that in the 1986 textbook "Trading Calculations" an entire chapter is devoted to abacus calculation methods.
Along with abacus, in scientific circles, since pre-revolutionary times, slide rules have been successfully used, which since the 17th century have served “faithfully” with virtually no changes until the advent of calculators.
Trying to somehow automate the calculation process, humanity begins to invent mechanical counting devices. Even the famous mathematician Chebyshev proposed his own model of a computer at the end of the 19th century. Unfortunately, the image has not been preserved.
The most popular mechanical calculator in Soviet times was the Odhner Felix system adding machine. On the left is an image of an adding machine, taken from the 1932 edition of the Small Soviet Encyclopedia.
This adding machine could perform four arithmetic operations - addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. In later models, for example, "Felix-M", you can see sliders to indicate the position of the comma and a lever to shift the carriage. To perform calculations, it was necessary to turn the handle - once for addition or subtraction, and several times for multiplication and division.
Of course, you can turn the knob once, and it’s even interesting, but what if you work as an accountant and you need to perform hundreds of simple operations per day? And the noise from the spinning counter gears is quite noticeable, especially if several people are working in the room with adding machines at the same time.
However, over time, turning the handle began to get boring, and the human mind invented electric calculating machines that performed arithmetic operations automatically or semi-automatically. On the right is an image of the VMM-2 multi-key computer, which was popular in the 50s (Commodity Dictionary, Volume VIII, 1960). This model had nine digits and worked up to the 17th order. It had dimensions of 440x330x240 mm and a weight of 23 kilograms.
Still, science took its toll. In the post-war years, electronics began to develop rapidly and the first computers appeared - electronic computers (computers). By the beginning of the 60s, a huge gap had formed in many respects between computers and the most powerful keyboard-based computers, despite the appearance of Soviet relay computers “Vilnius” and “Vyatka” (1961). 
But by that time, one of the world's first desktop keyboard computers, which used small-sized semiconductor elements and ferrite cores, had already been designed at Leningrad University. A working prototype of this computer, an electronic keyboard computer, was also made.
In general, it is believed that the first mass-produced electronic calculator appeared in England in 1963. His circuit was made on printed circuit boards and contained several thousand transistors alone. The size of such a calculator was like that of a typewriter, and it only performed arithmetic operations with multi-digit numbers. On the left is the "Electronics" calculator - a typical representative of calculators of this generation.
The distribution of desktop computers began in 1964, when serial production of the Vega computer was mastered in our country and production of desktop computers began in a number of other countries. In 1967, EDVM-11 (electronic ten-key computer) appeared - the first computer in our country that automatically calculated trigonometric functions.
The further development of computer technology is inextricably linked with the achievements of microelectronics. At the end of the 50s, the technology for the production of integrated circuits containing groups of interconnected electronic elements was developed, and already in 1961 the first model of a computer based on integrated circuits appeared, which was 48 times less in weight and 150 times less in volume than semiconductor computers that performed the same functions. In 1965, the first computers based on integrated circuits appeared. Around the same time, the first portable computers on LSIs (just introduced into production) with autonomous power supply from built-in batteries appeared. In 1971, the dimensions of computers became “pocket”; in 1972, electronic computers of a scientific and technical type appeared with subroutines for calculating elementary functions, additional memory registers and with the representation of numbers both in natural form and in floating point form in the widest range numbers.
The development of EKVM production in our country went in parallel with its development in other most industrialized countries of the world. In 1970, the first samples of IC-based computers appeared; in 1971, production of machines of the Iskra series began using these elements. In 1972, the first domestic microcomputers based on LSIs began to be produced.
FIRST SOVIET POCKET CALCULATOR
The first Soviet desktop calculators, which appeared in 1971, quickly gained popularity. LSI-based computers worked quietly, consumed little energy, and calculated quickly and accurately. The cost of microcircuits was rapidly decreasing, and one could think about creating a pocket-sized MK, the price of which would be affordable for the general consumer. 
In August 1973, the electronics industry of our country set the task of creating an electronic pocket computer on a microprocessor LSI and with a liquid crystal display in one year. A group of 27 people worked on this difficult task. There was a huge amount of work ahead: making drawings, diagrams, etc. templates consisting of 144 thousand points, place a microprocessor with 3400 elements in a 5x5 mm crystal.
After five months of work, the first samples of the MK were ready, and nine months later, three months before the deadline, an electronic pocket computer called “Electronics B3-04” was handed over to the state commission. Already at the beginning of 1974, the electronic gnome went on sale. It was a great labor victory that showed the capabilities of our electronics industry.
This microcalculator was the first to use a liquid crystal indicator, with the numbers depicted as white characters on a black background (see figure).
The calculator was turned on by pressing the shutter, after which the lid opened and the calculator began to work.
The microcalculator had a very interesting operating algorithm. In order to calculate (20-8+7) it was necessary to press the keys | C | 20 | += | 8 | -= | 7 | += |. Result: 5. If the result needs to be multiplied, say, by three, then the calculations can be continued by pressing the keys: | X | 3 | += |.
Key | K | used to calculate with a constant.
This calculator used transparent boards with volumetric mounting. The figure shows part of the microcalculator board.
The microcalculator contains four microcircuits - a 23-bit shift register K145AP1, an indicator control device K145PP1, an operational register K145IP2 and a microprocessor K145IP1. The voltage conversion block uses a level conversion chip.
It is interesting to note that this calculator ran on one AA battery (A316 "Kvant", "Uran").
FIRST SOVIET MICRO CALCULATORS
In the early 70s, the language that is familiar today for working with microcalculators was just emerging. The first models of microcalculators could generally have their own operating language, and you had to learn how to count on a calculator. Let's take, for example, the first calculator of the Leningrad plant "Svetlana" of the "C" series. This is a S3-07 calculator. By the way, it is worth noting that the calculators of the Svetlana plant generally stand apart.
A small digression. All microcalculators in those days received the general designation “B3” (the number three at the end, and not the letter “Z”, as many believed). Desktop electronic clocks received the letters B2, electronic wristwatches - B5 (for example, B5-207), desktop electronic clocks with a vacuum indicator - B6, large wall clocks - B7, and so on. The letter "B" stands for "household appliances". Only microcalculators from the Svetlanovsky plant received the letter “C” - Svetlana (INCALAND LIGHT - for those who don’t know).
So, let’s take, for example, the C3-07 calculator. A very amazing calculator, especially its keyboard and display. As you can see from the picture, not only the keys are combined on the calculator | += | and | -= |, but also multiply/divide | X -:- |. Try to figure out for yourself how to multiply and divide on this calculator. Hint: the calculator does not accept two presses on one key, only one is possible.
The answer is no less surprising: to perform, say, multiplication of 2 by 3, you need to press the keys | 2 | X-:- | 3 | += |, and to divide 2 by 3, you need to press the keys: | 2 | X-:- | 3 | -= |. Addition and subtraction occurs similarly to the B3-04 calculator, that is, obtaining the difference 2 - 3 will be calculated as follows: | 2 | += | 3 | -= |. In some models of this calculator you can also find an amazing eight-segment indicator.
Starting with this model of calculators, all simple calculators from the Svetlanov plant operate with numbers with orders up to 10e16-1, even if the display fits eight or twelve digits. If the result exceeds 8 or 12 digits (depending on the model), the comma disappears and the first 8 or 12 digits of the number appear on the display.
Speaking about the language of working with microcalculators of the first releases, we should also mention the B3-02, B3-05 and B3-05M calculators. These are milestones of the old Iskra type calculators. In these calculators, during calculations, all indicator digits are constantly lit. Mostly, of course, zeros. It is very inconvenient to find the first (and even the last) significant digit on such calculators. By the way, in the C3-07 model, which was mentioned earlier, there was already an attempt to solve this problem, albeit in a somewhat unusual way - on this calculator the zero has half the height. So, these three calculators had a very inconvenient, but quite understandable feature for early calculators: the required accuracy of calculations is set when entering the first number. That is, if it is necessary, say, to calculate the quotient of dividing 23 by 32 with an accuracy of three decimal places, then the number 23 must be entered with three decimal places: | 23,000 | -:- | 32 | = | (0.718). Until the operator presses the reset button, all subsequent calculations will be performed with three decimal places, and the decimal point will not move anywhere at all. This, by the way, is called “fixed point,” and later calculators, in which the point already moves across the display, were then called “floating point.” Now, there have been changes in terminology, as a result of which "floating point" is now called a display of a number with a mantissa on the left and an order on the right.
A year after the development of the first pocket microcalculator B3-04, new, more advanced models of pocket microcalculators appeared. These are models B3-09M, B3-14 and B3-14M. These calculators were made on one K145IK2 processor chip and one phase generator chip. The B3-09M calculator is shown on the left; the B3-14M is made in the same case; on the right is the B3-14. 
These models already had a “standard” language for working on calculators, including calculations with a constant.
These calculators could already operate either from a power supply or from four (B3-09M, B3-14M) or three (B3-14) AA elements.
Although these calculators are made on the same chip, they have different functionality. And in general, “removing” various functions was inherent in many models of Soviet microcalculators. For example, the B3-09M microcalculator did not have a sign for calculating the square root, and the B3-14M did not know how to calculate percentages.
The peculiarity of these simple calculators was that the comma occupied a separate place. This is very convenient for quickly reading information, but the last sign digit disappears. For these same calculators, before starting work, you must press the "C" key to clear the registers.
FIRST SOVIET ENGINEERING MICRO CALCULATOR
The next huge step in the history of the development of microcalculators was the appearance of the first Soviet engineering microcalculator. At the end of 1975, the first engineering microcalculator B3-18 was created in the Soviet Union. As the magazine “Science and Life” 10, 1976 wrote about this in the article “Fantastic Electronics”: “... this calculator crossed the Rubicon of arithmetic, its mathematical education stepped into trigonometry and algebra. “Electronics B3-18” can instantly raise square and extract the square root, raise it to any power within eight digits in two steps, calculate reciprocals, calculate logarithms and antilogarithms, trigonometric functions...", "...when you see how a machine that has just instantly added huge numbers, spends a few seconds to perform some algebraic or trigonometric operation, you can’t help but think about the big work that goes on inside the small box before the result lights up on its indicator.”
And indeed, a huge amount of work has been done. It was possible to fit 45,000 transistors, resistors, capacitors and conductors into a single crystal measuring 5 x 5.2 mm, that is, fifty televisions of that time were crammed into one cell of an arithmetic notebook! However, the price of such a calculator was considerable - 220 rubles in 1978. For example, an engineer after graduating from college in those days received 120 rubles a month. But the purchase was worth it. Now you don’t have to think about how not to knock down the slide rule slider, you don’t have to worry about the error, you can throw logarithm tables on the shelf.
By the way, the prefix function key “F” was used for the first time in this calculator.
Still, it was not possible to completely fit everything we wanted into the K145IP7 chip of the B3-18 calculator. For example, when calculating functions that used Taylor series expansion, the working register was cleared, resulting in the previous result of the operation being erased. In this regard, it was impossible to perform chain calculations, such as 5 + sin 2. To do this, you first had to get the sine of two, and then only add 5 to the result.
So, a lot of work has been done, a lot of effort has been spent, and the result is a good, but very expensive calculator. To make the calculator accessible to the masses, it was decided to make a cheaper model based on the B3-18A calculator. In order not to reinvent the wheel, our engineers took the easiest path. They took and removed the prefix function key "F" from the calculator. The calculator turned into a regular one, was named "B3-25A" and became available to the general public. And only calculator developers and repairmen knew the secret of remaking the B3-25A.
FURTHER DEVELOPMENT OF MICRO CALCULATORS
Immediately after the B3-18 calculator, together with engineers from the GDR, the B3-19M microcalculator was released. This calculator used the so-called “reverse Polish notation”. First, the first number is typed, then the key to enter a number on the stack is pressed, then the second number, and only after that the required operation. The stack in the calculator consists of three registers - X, Y and Z. In the same calculator, entering the order of a number and displaying the number in floating point format (with mantissa and order) were used for the first time. The calculator used a 12-digit indicator with red light-emitting diodes.
In 1977, another very powerful engineering calculator appeared - S3-15. This calculator had increased calculation accuracy (up to 12 digits), worked with orders up to 9, (9) to the 99th power, had three memory registers, but most importantly, it worked with algebraic logic. That is, in order to calculate 2 + 3 * 5 using the formula, there was no need to first calculate 3 * 5 and then add 2 to the result. This formula could be written in a “natural” form: | 2 | + | 3 | * | 5 | = |. In addition, the calculator used brackets of up to eight levels. This calculator is also the only calculator that, together with its desktop brother MK-41, has a /p/ key. This key was used to calculate the formula sqrt (x^2 + y^2).
In 1977, the K145IP11 microcircuit was developed, which spawned a whole series of calculators. The very first of them was the very famous B3-26 calculator (in the picture on the right). As with the B3-09M, B3-14 and B3-14M calculators, as well as the B3-18A and B3-25A, they did the same with it - some functions were removed.
Based on the B3-26 calculator, the B3-23 calculators with percentages, B3-23A with square roots, and B3-24G with memory were made. By the way, the B3-23A calculator subsequently became the cheapest Soviet calculator with a price of only 18 rubles. The B3-26 soon became known as the MK-26 and its half-brother MK-57 and MK-57A appeared with similar functions.
The Svetlanovsky plant also pleased with its model C3-27, which, however, did not catch on, and it was soon replaced by the very popular and cheap model C3-33 (MK-33).
Another direction in the development of microcalculators was the engineering B3-35 (MK-35) and B3-36 (MK-36). The B3-35 differed from the B3-36 in its simpler design and cost five rubles less. 
These microcalculators were able to convert degrees to radians and vice versa, multiply and divide numbers in memory.
It was very interesting that these calculators calculated the factorial - by simple search. It took more than five seconds to calculate the maximum factorial value of 69 on the B3-35 microcalculator.
These calculators were very popular among us, although they had, in my opinion, some drawback: they showed exactly as many significant digits on the indicator as stated in the instructions. Usually there are five or six of them for transcendental functions.
Based on these calculators, a desktop version of the MK-45 was made.
By the way, many pocket engineering calculators have their desktop brothers. These are calculators MK-41 (S3-15), MKSh-2 (B3-30), MK-45 (B3-35, B3-36).
The MKSh-2 calculator is the only “school” calculator produced by our industry, with the exception of large demonstration ones, which will be discussed below. This calculator, like the B3-32 calculator (in the figure on the left), was able to calculate the roots of a quadratic equation and find the roots of a system of equations with two unknowns. The design of this calculator is completely identical to the B3-14 calculator.
A special feature of the calculator, in addition to those described above, is that all the inscriptions on the keys are made according to foreign standards. For example, the key for writing a number into memory was designated not “P” or “x->P”, but “STO”. Recalling a number from memory - "RCL".
Despite the ability to work with numbers with large orders of magnitude, this calculator used an eight-digit display, the same as in the B3-14. It turned out that if you display a number with a mantissa and an order, then only five significant digits will fit on the indicator. To solve this problem, the "CN" key was used in the microcalculator. If, for example, the result of the calculation was the number 1.2345678e-12, then it was displayed on the indicator as 1.2345-12. Clicking | F | CN |, we see 12345678 on the indicator. The comma goes out.
This article is dedicated to the history of the development of Soviet calculators - from abacus to programmable devices. From the beginning of the century to the present day.
The abacus is the first automatic device used in Russia for computing purposes. This device became the “national calculator” and was used until the mid-90s. Interestingly, the "Trading Calculators" manual, published in 1986, devotes an entire chapter to calculation methods using abacuses.
The most popular mechanical calculator in the USSR was called "Iron Felix". An adding machine based on the Odhner system.
The adding machine could do four arithmetic operations - addition, subtraction, multiplication and division. “Advanced” models, for example, the Felisk-M model, had the ability to work with fractions. In order to perform calculations, the necessary numbers were dialed with levers, and the action was performed by turning the knob. One turn is for addition or subtraction, and several for division and multiplication. In the 50s, electrically driven devices appeared, which have survived to this day. Remember the mechanical cash register that is found in every third grocery store today.
After the Second World War, Soviet scientists began to work closely on the development of electronic computing devices. In 1961, Leningrad University developed the first Soviet electronic calculator EKVM-1. It was one of the first electronic calculators in the world. Since 1964, mass production of such devices began, and in 1967 a calculator with trigonometric functions appeared. These devices were initially based on vacuum tubes and ferrite memory cells. Subsequently, the element base changed somewhat. Semiconductors began to be used. By the way, one of the typical calculators of that time still works in Minsk at the Belarusian State Pedagogical University in the laboratory at the Department of Organic Chemistry.
However, let's return to calculators. In 1971, the first calculator assembled on microcircuits was developed and put into production in the Soviet Union. A series of single-chip ALUs was developed, which was then used for almost 15 years in various models of calculators with LED displays. This is a critical moment in the development of the calculator. From a massive box powered by a lighting network, it had to step into a small, pocket-sized case powered by batteries. A group of 27 engineers worked on its development. This was a huge project, which involved the development of a chip consisting of 3400 transistors on a 5x5 mm chip.
After five months of work, the first prototypes of the calculator were ready and handed over to the state commission, the Electronics B3-04 calculator went on sale. The calculator had a transparent LCD screen and, most interestingly, was powered by one 1.5 volt AA battery.
The next significant step in the development of the Soviet electronics industry was the VZ-18 engineering calculator, developed in 1975.
He could take square roots, raise numbers to powers, calculate logarithms, and much more. It contained a microprocessor consisting of more than 45,000 transistors. The device was quite expensive - it cost about 200 rubles, and this is with the average salary of an engineer being 120 rubles. However, he was wildly popular.
The first programmable calculator VZ-21 was developed in 1977.
The device could perform a certain sequence of pre-programmed actions. In management I used “reverse Polish notation” and cost as much as 350 rubles. The program could consist of 60 steps and use conditional branches and subroutines. There was a modification of this calculator for conducting experiments. This model had an externally mounted memory register that could be connected to an external device.
However, the VZ-34 became a truly popular apparatus.
It appeared in 1980. It had a green display and cost 85 rubles. It was a breakthrough. In fact, it was the first home computer. There was a lot of software for it - from engineering to gaming. In the mid-80s, there was a real boom in programs for this model in the USSR. By the way, from the same time it began to be called MK-52 and received a black body. The popularity and reliability of this device was such that it was used at the SOYUZ TM-7 orbital station as an emergency computer.
And finally, a masterpiece of the calculator industry - MK-90. Nothing like this was produced in the world at that time. Calculator with graphic display, non-volatile RAM and BASIC interpreter!
It used a processor with the PDP-11 instruction system.
I can tell you from experience - a very useful device. At one time, as a student, I used it not only for calculations, but also as a universal cheat sheet for exams. 32 kilobytes of non-volatile memory made it possible to write almost the entire course of the subject into it in a short form. Unfortunately, the era of the USSR was approaching its collapse, and this device did not receive further development. It's a pity. After all, this and all the other devices that I talked about in the article were the first in the world at one time. Strange as it may seem, the USSR was the leader in the world “calculator industry” until the early 90s. Who knows? Maybe if it weren’t for the collapse of the USSR, the legendary Palm Pilot would have been called MK-xxxx?
These machines were called microcalculators - they were solar-powered or mains-powered. And some models even came with a case - just like mobile phones today...
1. Electronics MK-51. Comfortable and functional. From 7th to 11th grade he went to school with me from bell to bell 
2. Office monster Electronics B3-05 M. It did not yet have an LCD screen, and the numbers glowed with thin green threads. 
3. Electronics B3-09 M. The unit in the photo was released back in 1976... 
4. Electronics B3-18 A - the first domestic engineering microcalculator. Produced since 1976 
5. Electronics B3-36. Charging is almost like some Sony Ericsson mobile phones 
6. Electronics MK-37A 
7. Electronics MK-41. Another office monster 
8. Electronics MK-44. And one more. How cheerfully the accountants trilled at such people, quickly entering the resulting numbers into yellow paper sheets... 
9. Electronics MK-52 - the first Soviet microcalculator with non-volatile electrically erasable memory (PROM with a capacity of 4 Kbit, the number of rewrite cycles is 10,000), ensuring the safety of programs when the power is turned off and serving as a buffer when exchanging data with external devices 
10. Electronics MK-56. Memory 98 commands and 14 registers, performance of about 5 simple operations per second. When you turn off the calculator, the contents of the memory are erased 
11. Electronics MK-59, manufactured for the national economy and export)) 
12. Electronics MK-41. I've always been fascinated by its shape. It's like a horse is rearing up 
13. Electronics MK-60. The first Soviet calculator powered by solar cells 
14. Electronics MK-61. Here it is - a programmable microcalculator that I “played” with. If you can call it that 
15. He’s the same, dear 
16. Electronics MK-71 - Soviet engineering calculator powered by solar cells. Produced since 1986 at the Angstrem plant, sold at a price of 75 rubles. Full domestic analogue of Casio fx-950 
17. Electronics MK-85 - a programmable calculator (microcomputer) with a built-in BASIC language interpreter. Produced by the Angstrem plant, Zelenograd from 1986 to 2000, sold in the Electronics chain of stores at a price of 145 rubles, which at that time was significantly cheaper than any other computer equipped with a BASIC interpreter, then at a free retail price 
And a little about games on programmable microcalculators.
There were a great variety of games for the PMC. Many of these games are now lost and cannot be found even among the vast expanses of the Internet.
What was a typical secondary combat game like? To fully cover all the characteristic features of such games, we will choose some dynamic game, for example, “Star Fighter 4”.
First you had to enter the program code. He looked like this
This entire code is carefully entered into the PMC memory (as we can see from the number of steps - 104 - this program is only suitable for MK-61 and MK-52). God forbid you make a mistake - it will take a lot of time to find the error, unless of course you are the happy owner of an MK-52 and do not download this program from the PROM.
After the program code is entered, it is necessary to fill in the registers (these are variables in the PMC). We enter the necessary information into the registers. It is usually printed immediately after the program code.
Traditionally, data to be entered into the register is written in the format of keystrokes. In the case of our game it is: “6 xP0; number from 0 to 1 xP3; 3 xP7; 50 xP8; 69 xP9; 88858893 Q? 336542 KV VP 7 hPA; 87 hPB; 59 xPS; 7 F10x xPD". The entry “6 xP0” in this example means that the number 6 is entered into register 0.
For comparison, imagine that you bought a sheet (not a disk, but a sheet) with the game Oblivion, and enter it point by point into your computer, instead of automatically installing from the disk... Now you understand.
After all the necessary data has been entered into the registers, the “B/O” and “C/P” keys are pressed, starting the program from step number 00.
"Star Fighter" is a dynamic game, which means now we will need to carefully peer into the dimly flickering screen. If we are in a room with excess sunlight (or, God forbid, outdoors), then it is best to make a visor for the calculator from thick cardboard to shade the flickering indicator.
So, we peer intensely into the flickering. At first it’s a jumble of incomprehensible numbers and symbols, and then with enviable consistency the same video message begins to flicker: 
This is already a game)))) yes, yes
As we know from the instructions (and you definitely need to read it before playing in order to know what these or those letters and numbers mean, because there are no intuitive graphics): “8” on the left is a meaningless number, the appearance of which on the screen is inevitable (these are conditions for creating video messages for PMK); "-" means enemy unmanned probes; a flashing “8” in the center is our sight; There are also: “L” - light fighters, “C” - medium fighters, “G” - heavy fighters, “E” - bodyguard ships (not shown in the illustration). Purpose of the game: destroy all ships of the enemy, the Evil Empire. 9 moves are given to destroy each link. If we do not destroy a link of enemy ships during this time, another link comes in from the rear and destroys us - the inscription “YEGGOG” will appear, which for most secondary combat games is analogous to “game over”. If we manage to destroy them, we will move on to the next link. After the destruction of the last link (bodyguard ships “E”), evidence of our victory “BLESC-93” will appear.
How to make a move, you ask, because after pressing any key the calculator interrupts the calculations (and therefore the game)? The answer is simple - to move in space, use the “R-GRD-G” lever. R - left, G - right, GRD - shot.
While the message is flashing, we move the lever to the desired position and wait. The calculator performs the necessary calculations and now a new disposition is blinking. You can make a new move...
This is such a dry handjob micro calculator game
The history of the development of such a computing mechanism as a calculator begins in the 17th century, and the first prototypes of this device existed in the 6th century BC. The word “calculator” itself comes from the Latin “calculo”, which means “I count”, “I count”. But a more detailed study of the etymology of this concept shows that we should initially talk about the word “calculus”, which is translated as “pebble”. After all, initially it was pebbles that were used as an attribute for counting.
The calculator is one of the simplest and most frequently used mechanisms in everyday life, but this invention has a long history and valuable experience for the development of science.
Antikythera Mechanism
The first prototype of the calculator is considered to be the Antikythera mechanism, which was discovered at the beginning of the twentieth century near the island of Antikythera on a sunken ship that belonged to Italy. Scientists believe that the mechanism can be dated back to the second century BC.
The device was intended to calculate the movement of planets and satellites. The Antikythera mechanism could also add, subtract and divide.
Abacus
While trade relations between Asia and Europe began to improve, the need for various accounting operations became greater and greater. That is why in the 6th century the first prototype of a calculating machine was invented - Abacus.
An abacus is a small wooden board on which special grooves were made. These small recesses most often contained pebbles or tokens representing numbers.
The mechanism worked on the principle of Babylonian counting, which was based on the sexagesimal system. Any digit of a number consisted of 60 units and, based on where the number was located, each groove corresponded to the number of ones, tens, etc. Due to the fact that it was quite inconvenient to hold 60 pebbles in each recess, the recesses were divided into 2 parts: in one - pebbles denoting tens (no more than 5), in the second - pebbles denoting units (no more than 9) . At the same time, in the first compartment the pebbles corresponded to units, in the second compartment to tens, etc. If in one of the grooves the number required for the operation exceeded 59, then one of the stones was moved to the adjacent row.
The abacus was popular until the XVIII century and had many modifications.
Leonardo da Vinci's calculating machine
In the diaries of Leonardo da Vinci one could see drawings of the first calculating machine, which were called the “Madrid Codex”.
The device consisted of several rods with wheels of different sizes. Each wheel at its base had teeth, thanks to which the mechanism could work. Ten rotations of the first axis resulted in one rotation of the second, and ten rotations of the second axis resulted in one full rotation of the third.
Most likely, during his lifetime Leonardo was never able to transfer his ideas into the material world, so it is generally accepted that in the second half of the 19th century the first model of a calculating machine, created by Dr. Roberto Guatelli, appeared.
Napier Sticks
Scottish explorer John Napier, in one of his books published in 1617, outlined the principle of multiplication using wooden sticks. Soon a similar method began to be called Napier's sticks. This mechanism was based on the lattice multiplication method, which was popular at that time.
"Napere's Sticks" were a set of wooden sticks, most of which were marked with the multiplication table, as well as one stick with numbers from one to nine marked on it.
In order to carry out the multiplication operation, it was necessary to lay out sticks that would correspond to the value of the digit of the multiplicand, and the top row of each tablet had to form the multiplicand. In each line, the numbers were summed up, and then the result after the operation was added up.
Schickard's calculating clock
It was more than 150 years after Leonardo da Vinci invented his calculating machine when German professor Wilhelm Schickard wrote about his invention in one of his letters to Johannes Kepler in 1623. According to Schickard, the device could perform addition and subtraction operations, as well as multiplication and division.
This invention went down in history as one of the prototypes of the calculator, and it received the name “mechanical watch” because of the principle of operation of the mechanism, which was based on the use of sprockets and gears.
Schickard's calculating clock was the first mechanical device that could perform 4 arithmetic operations.
Two copies of the device burned down in a fire, and the drawings of their creator were found only in 1935.
Blaise Pascal's calculating machine
In 1642, Blaise Pascal began developing a new calculating machine at the age of 19. Pascal's father, while collecting taxes, was forced to deal with constant calculations, so his son decided to create an apparatus that could facilitate such work.
Blaise Pascal's Calculating Machine is a small box containing many interconnected gears. The numbers needed to perform any of the four arithmetic operations were entered using wheel turns that corresponded to the decimal place of the number.
Over the course of 10 years, Pascal was able to construct about 50 copies of the machines, 10 of which he sold.
Kalmar's adding machine
In the first half of the 19th century, Thomas de Kalmar created the first commercial device that could perform four arithmetic operations. The adding machine was created based on the mechanism of Kalmar's predecessor, Wilhelm Leibniz. Having managed to improve an already existing apparatus, Kalmar called his invention an “arithmometer.”
The Squid Adding Machine is a small iron or wooden mechanism that contains an automated counter that can be used to perform four arithmetic operations. It was a device that was superior to a number of already existing models, since it could work with thirty-digit numbers.
Adding machines of the 19th-20th century
After humanity realized that computer technology significantly simplifies working with numbers, many inventions related to counting mechanisms appeared in the 19th and 20th centuries. The most popular device during this period was the adding machine.
Squid Adding Machine: Invented in 1820, the first commercial machine to perform 4 arithmetic operations.
Chernyshev's adding machine: the first adding machine to appear in Russia, invented in the 50s of the 19th century.
The Odhner adding machine is one of the most popular adding machines of the twentieth century, appeared in 1877.
Mercedes-Euklid VI adding machine: the first adding machine capable of performing four arithmetic operations without human assistance, invented in 1919.
Calculators in the 21st century
Nowadays, calculators play a significant role in all spheres of life: from professional to household. These computing instruments replaced the abacus and abacus, which were popular in their time, for humanity.
Based on the target audience and characteristics, calculators are divided into simple, engineering, accounting and financial. There are also programmable calculators that can be placed in a separate class. They can work with complex programs pre-built into the mechanism itself. To work with graphs, you can use a graphing calculator.
Also, classifying calculators by design, there are compact and desktop types.
The history of counting technology is the process of acquiring experience and knowledge by humanity, as a result of which counting mechanisms were able to harmoniously fit into human life.
Sergey Frolov
While collecting domestic computer equipment, I was always interested to know whether domestic calculators and other calculating machines have foreign analogues.
I had to spend a lot of time learning about these analogues. This turned out to be quite difficult: I had to spend long evenings on the Internet, thoroughly review sites where other collectors show their exhibits, write down the names of models, save images of equipment and compare them with domestic equipment.
In addition to collectors' websites, the well-known online auction Ebay, where all sorts of gizmos are sold, and, of course, calculators and other counting equipment, was very helpful in finding analogues. Navigating through Ebay takes a particularly long time, because sellers do not bother themselves much with a detailed description of the product they are selling, often limiting themselves to a general description like “Vintage calculator”, etc. But the most difficult thing among all this was not only searching for analogues, but also obtaining one analogue to the collection. Pay attention to the photographs presented: there are both photographs of analogues from other sites, the owners of which kindly allowed the use of photographs, and my own photographs for analogues of domestic cars, which I still managed to purchase. Mass copying of computer technology most likely began with our Odhner adding machine. Here's from this model:
This is the first mass adding machine of the Odhner system, released in 1890. Before this, a trial version of a slightly different shape was released in a batch of 50 copies, but it was this model that became truly widespread and a role model throughout the world.
To get an idea of the Odhner system adding machine clones, look at the adding machines of very famous brands presented on the wonderful Rechenmaschinen-Illustrated website: Brunsviga, Facit, Hamann-Manus, the Swedish production of adding machines under the brand name "Original-Odhner", Thales and Triumphator.
At first, foreign companies received the rights to produce adding machines from Odner and his descendants, but after the revolution, hardly anyone began to pay licensing fees to the Soviet government. Accordingly, the Soviet Union also began to copy Western analogues.
In general, there is a very big advantage to copying: it saves a lot of time on developing and debugging new technologies, and the money saved can be spent on something more necessary. Below you can look at photographs of domestic calculating machines and their foreign analogues. By and large, the photographs speak for themselves, requiring no comment, but for some cars I will make a few remarks.
For each model of calculators, I also provided links to sites where you can see more photographs of analogues (the topmost link leads to my site with photographs of the domestic version).
Bystrica and Bystrica 2 - Bohn Contex Model 20
Thanks Prof. Dr. C.-M.Hamann
A very original calculator, powered by a palm strike.
Thanks to Freddy Haeghens for submitting the photo.
The closest analogue of the Odner adding machine and, probably, the last of the adding machines sold in the USSR (late 70s). We had two options: mechanical BK-1 (Facit TK) and electromechanical BK-2 (Facit EK).
In addition, BK-3 and BK-4 were also produced, but it has not yet been possible to find out what kind of calculators they are.
Sharp Compet CS-30A - Electronics DD
Thanks to Tony Epton for submitting the photo.
By the way, this calculator has one feature: it does not contain negative numbers. If you subtract three from two, but all nines appear on the indicator - a representation of the number in complementary code.
T3-16 - HP 9100B The first desktop calculator with engineering functions and programmability from Hewlett Packard was called the HP 9100A. It appeared in 1968. Our copy was called "Electronics 70", and, judging by the name, appeared in 1970. It was a very complex calculator. For its release, the production of special transistors, analogues of which were used in the HP 9100A, was mastered. I talked to a person who used Elektronika 70 a little. He said that it was a unique calculator that had all the traces of the printed circuit board gold plated. Unfortunately, I was unable to get hold of Elektronika 70 and cannot show photographs of it.
But I managed to get "Electronics T3-16", which was made on the basis of the HP 9100B. In fact, the HP 9100B was an improved version of the HP 9100A.
If you go to the site where I took photographs of the T3-16 (http://www.leningrad.su/museum/show_calc.php?n=211), you can see how complex this calculator is: a large number of microcircuits, memory on magnetic cores , a magnetic card reader where user programs were stored, a cathode ray tube where information was displayed, and so on. Of course, this small computer turned out to be very difficult to manufacture and operate, and it could not be produced in large quantities.
Electronics 24-71 - Sharp QT-8D
Calculators in general were pioneers in electronics. New technologies were mastered for their microcircuits, new types of indicators were produced. For example, in this model, for the first time in the USSR, a vacuum luminescent indicator of the IV-1 type (number sign and overflow) and IV-2 (digits) was used. Pay attention to the silhouette of the signs. It is unique to this micro calculator and has not been used anywhere else. All products with indicators on glowing green numbers started with this calculator model.
Electronics B3-04 - Sharp EL-805
The first domestic pocket microcalculator. Gold glass board. 1974. In six months, we managed to completely copy its analogue, the Sharp EL-805: develop microcircuits from scratch, master liquid crystal technology, and so on. There is only a slight difference in the two models - in the shape of the lid covering the indicator (visible in the photo).
The microcalculator turned out to be very unreliable and practically unrepairable. The machines of the first releases were called "Microcomputers", and on later ones the term "Microcalculator" was first used.
Electronics B3-18 - Anita 202SR
Electronics B3-18A - Rockwell 61R
Around the same time as with B3-04, the question arose about creating an engineering calculator. Our industry took two paths and almost simultaneously released the first two domestic engineering calculators: Electronics S3-15 and B3-18. There were two ways: we made the first calculator ourselves, involving leading mathematicians to compile algorithms for calculating functions, and the second became a copy of the Anita 202SR calculator.
A year later, a modification of the B3-18 was released called B3-18A (Rockwell 61R)
A copy was made, but problems arose: the calculator chip required precise adjustment of the supply voltage. On each chip they wrote (mostly with a pencil) the operating voltage of the microcircuit with an accuracy of hundredths of a volt!
Electronics B3-23 - EZ2000
In addition to complete copying of calculators (including control chips), design copying was also used. This can be seen in the example of calculators Electronics B3-23 (EZ2000), B3-02 (Sharp EL-8001), B3-11 (ICC-82D) and MK-85 (Casio fx-700P), but more on the latter below.
As I already wrote, for the first domestic microcalculator Electronics B3-04, the Sharp EL-805 was taken as the prototype as the first liquid crystal calculator. And the Electronics B3-30 microcalculator was also taken from the first liquid crystal calculator, but with a slightly different technology - black symbols on a light background - the same one that is now installed in almost all models. That same model was called Sharp EL-8020.
For a long time, another well-known collector of domestic calculators, the Australian Andrew Davie, and I believed that one of the most beautiful calculators in terms of design was the Electronics B3-36. But recently I managed to get my hands on its prototype - a rather rare Rockwell THE 74K calculator.
As you can see, the design is repeated almost completely, and the functions of the calculator are 100 percent identical.
B3-35 - Hanimex ESR Master
The same can be said about Electronics B3-35 calculators (Hanimex ESR Master). This model differs from the B3-36 almost only in design.
B3-38 - Casio fx-48
To date, I have not been able to get my hands on a Casio fx-48 calculator. Shown here is a photo taken from an Ebay auction many years ago. This is the smallest domestic microcalculator. It was taken from a Casio fx-48.
MK-51 - Casio fx-2500
Around the same time, one of the most popular microcalculators was made - Electronics MK 51 (Casio fx-2500). What is most interesting is that the same chip is used for Electronics B3-38 and MK-51. The fact is that Casio very widely uses technology when the same processor chip is used to produce calculators and a large range of calculators is produced for it. If you have an MK-51 calculator, then you can check the interesting fact that if you press the F key and the number key, the function that is drawn for the F1 key on the B3-38 calculator will be executed.
MK-71 - Casio fx-950
The same can be said about the Electronics MK-71 (Casio fx-950) calculators. Casio has a similar model with an 8-digit indicator instead of a 10-digit one. It's called Casio fx-900. That model does not have a lever for switching the mode of calculating trigonometric functions and the selection of degrees, degrees, and radians is performed using buttons. And the most interesting thing is that you can go from fx-950 to fx-900 by setting this lever to an intermediate position - between degrees and radians or between radians and degrees. I checked - it works on both the MK-71 and the Casio fx-950.
MK-53 - Monroe M112
There are some problems with this calculator. Monroe, although it produced calculators, I am not sure that this calculator was developed by Monroe. The fact is that many companies that produced calculators either used ready-made calculator chips, or used OEM versions of other companies and put only their logos. Most likely this model was made from some kind of Sharp calculator. It is unlikely that this is a Casio, because on Casio calculators the minus sign is located to the left of the number, and on Sharp calculators it is on a separate familiar place (in this model, on the left side of the display). This calculator is also the only calculator in the USSR with a clock and a stopwatch. MK-87 does not count, because there is a separate calculator and a separate clock.
And now the most interesting part - personal computers. The most famous calculator with BASIC - Electronics MK-85 also has its own prototype. This is the Casio FX-700P. However, the task was not to make a complete copy of the FX-700P. One of the reasons was the lack of Cyrillic on the keyboard. But they still set the task - to make a complete copy both in appearance and in built-in functions.
In the same way, at one time an exact copy of the Wang 2000 computer (Iskra 226) was made in order to be able to run programs developed for Wang, which were available in large quantities.
MK-85M - Casio fx-700P
Development was difficult; we had to tinker a lot with the indicator to achieve an acceptable level and uniformity of contrast. Still, we managed to make the MK-85, and this machine was a success.
Of course, there were some drawbacks. One of them was terrible performance. As one person who took part in the development of this model told me, the difficulty was that the calculation of functions was carried out by series expansion, while in the fx-700P it was done using the “digit by digit” method. And another factor that affected performance was the storage of numbers: in hexadecimal form in the MK-85 and in decimal form in the FX-700P.
The MK-85 uses a 16-bit microprocessor, the instruction system is compatible with the DEC PDP-11. Casio has a 4-bit processor designed to process one digit of a number. Maybe this also affected the speed of calculations.
MK-87 - Casio PF-3000
This is a very rare calculator. Only about 6,000-8,000 thousand copies were produced. A line for the production of touch buttons that could be pressed with a light touch was purchased from Japan. The result was a very complex and very expensive notebook calculator with a 16-bit microprocessor. Its cost turned out to be more than a hundred rubles, and the matter did not go beyond the experimental batch.
Its prototype is the first calculator-notebook from Casio - the PF-3000 is slightly different, but in general these are machines with the same functions.
And finally, I want to say about the MK-90/MK-92. Although this calculator and the MK-90 are calculators of our own domestic design, some design details are borrowed from the Casio PB-410, especially external cartridges for storing battery-powered programs. The MK-92 with its color plotter is very similar to the Casio FA-10. It's a pity that we couldn't connect the MK-92 to the TV.
That's all. But don’t think that we were only copying Western analogues. We also produced our own calculators. Take MK-61, MK-52 for example. It would seem a simple design, but the programming capabilities turned out to be at a high level, and these calculators became the most popular.
Don't think that we were the only ones who copied from others. Industrial espionage and the use of each other's advanced technologies are standard practice among competing powers. A very clear example of the use of our technologies is the American F-15 aircraft. It is very similar to our MiG-25. But that's a completely different story.
Thank you for your attention.
Text, photographs - Sergey Frolov
Iron Ghosts of the Past - 2008