The case method as a modern educational technology. Case-study method as a modern technology


Borodkina Veronika Nikolaevna ,

deputy director for educational work

GBPOU Vocational School No. 39

the settlement of Central Khazan of the Irkutsk region

Case method as modern educational technology

Annotation: The articlethe issues of relevance and necessity of case technology in the modern educational system are considered.

Keywords: case method, pedagogical technology, modern education, problem situation, competencies, active learning.

Today, in the period of transition from an industrial to an information culture, characterized by such features as an integrated character, flexibility, mobility of thinking, dialogicism, tolerance and close communication at all levels, the task of education is to prepare a person corresponding to this new culture.

The introduction of Federal State Standards into the educational process also determines the search for new forms and methods of teaching in an educational institution. The main method according to the Federal State Educational Standard, aimed primarily at “arousing interest” among students in mastering knowledge, is the method of problem-based learning.

One of the new forms of effective learning technologies is problem-situational learning using case studies. The introduction of educational cases into the practice of Russian education is currently a very urgent task. The organizational basis of case methods is active learning, and the content basis is problem learning.

Case technologies combine at the same time and role-playing games, and project method, and situational analysis.

Case technology (case method) is an interactive learning technology based on real or fictional situations, aimed not so much at mastering knowledge as at developing new qualities and skills in students. Its main purpose is to develop the ability to develop problems and find solutions, learn to work with information. At the same time, the emphasis is not on obtaining ready-made knowledge, but on their development, on the co-creation of a teacher and a student.[ 4, 12 ]

The methods of case technologies that activate the educational process include:

    method of situational analysis (Method of analysis of specific situations, situational tasks and exercises; case stages)

    incident method;

    method of situational role-playing games;

    method of parsing business correspondence;

    game design;

method of discussion

The technology of the method is as follows: according to certain rules, a model of a specific situation that has occurred in real life is developed, and the complex of knowledge and practical skills that students need to acquire is reflected; in this case, the teacher acts as a moderator, generating questions, fixing the answers, supporting the discussion, i.e. as a manager of the co-creation process.

The undoubted advantage of the case method is not only the acquisition of knowledge and the formation of practical skills, but also the development of a system of values ​​of students, professional positions, attitudes, a kind of professional attitude and world transformation.

The case method overcomes the classic defect of traditional teaching associated with "dryness", not emotionality in the presentation of the material - there are so many emotions, creative competition and even struggle in this method that a well-organized discussion of the case resembles a theatrical performance.

With the help of this method, students have the opportunity to show and improve analytical and evaluative skills, learn to work in a team, find the most rational solution to the problem posed, and form common competencies. It affects the professionalization of students, promotes their maturation. The essence of learning by the case-method is that everyone offers options based on their knowledge, practical experience and intuition.

Usually, the sources of cases are: public life in all its diversity is the source of the plot, problem and factual base of the case; education - defines the goals and objectives of training and education, integrated into the case method; science is the third source of the case as a reflective complex;

The sources of cases highlighted above are basic, or primary. At the same time, secondary sources of case formation can also be identified.

1. Fiction and journalistic literature, which can suggest ideas, and in some cases determine the plot outline of cases in the humanities.

2. Using “local” material as a source of case formation.

3. High-quality materials for the case can be obtained through the analysis of scientific articles, monographs and scientific reports devoted to a particular problem.

4. An inexhaustible source of material for case studies is the Internet with its resources. This source is notable for its considerable scale, flexibility and efficiency.

When drawing up cases, you need to adhere to the following main stages of creating cases:

I. Preparatory stage - the teacher concretizes the didactic goals, develops an appropriate "specific situation" and a lesson scenario. The content should reflect real professional situations, not fictional events and facts. Students should be provided with clear instructions for dealing with a specific situation.

II. Familiarization stage - students are involved in a lively discussion of a real situation, therefore it is very important to think over the most effective form of presenting the material for acquaintance. Further, there is a direct acquaintance of students with the content of a specific situation, which can be individual or group

III. Analytical - after the students get acquainted with the provided facts, their analysis begins in group work. This decision-making process, which is the essence of the method, has time limits, which are monitored by the teacher.

IV. The bottom line is performance this method increases due to the final presentation of the results of analytical work by different groups, when students can learn and compare several options for optimal solutions to one problem.

Case technology is applicable in teaching any subject, if the main tasks set in the lesson are teaching critical thinking skills, independent decision-making.

Literature lessons are the most convenient for using case technologies, since it is in these lessons, when working with text, we bring children to a particular thought.

When compiling assignments, it is advisable to use several levels of difficulty:

– The first degree of difficulty: there is a practical situation, there is a solution ... Students determine if a solution is appropriate for a given situation. Is it possible another solution, another answer?

– Second degree of difficulty: there is a practical situation - find a solution

For example, there is a literary text and real information about the writer, the hero as a person. Compare, find common ground and differences.

– The third degree of difficulty: there is a practical situation - define the problem and find solutions.

Students are invited to solve the case after reading the work on their own, working with additional literature. There can be many solutions and all options have the right to exist, prove and discuss.

When introducing the case method into his practice, the teacher must take into account the degree and level of training of students in different age categories.

The same case is not always suitable for working with students in the same parallel, but with different levels of mental activity. For weak groups, the case should be made easier, for example, from a heuristic - analytical, for strong ones - and the case should become more complicated, from analytical to research .

Almost any teacher who wants to implement case technologies can do it quite professionally, having studied special literature, having educational situations in hand.

As a result, the case method contributes to the development of students' independent thinking, the ability to listen and take into account an alternative point of view, to express their own reasonedly. Using this method, students have the opportunity to show and improve analytical and evaluative skills, learn to work in a team, find the most rational solution to the problem posed,learners learn social interaction.

Used Books

1. Kozyreva L. The case study method and its application in the process of teaching students. M., "Education", 2005.

2. Logunova N. Teaching as communication and co-creation // Higher education in Russia. 2000. №3.

3. The case-study method as a modern technology of oriented learning: Abstract review / Ed. Komissarova. M.: Financial Academy under the Government of the Russian Federation, 2005.

4.Mikhailova E.A. Case and case method: the process of writing a case. http://www.hr-training.net/statya/mihailova_1/shtml.

5.Mikhailova E.I. Case and case method: general concepts... / Marketing, No. 1, 1999

6. Formation of universal educational actions in basic school: from action to thought / Edited by A.G. Asmolova. M., "Education", 2010. ...

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CASE TECHNOLOGIES AS ONE OF INNOVATIVE METHODS OF THE EDUCATIONAL ENVIRONMENT

The problem of assimilating knowledge has long haunted teachers. Almost any human action in life, not only study, is associated with the need to assimilate and process certain knowledge, this or that information. Teaching to learn, namely to assimilate and properly process information, is the main thesis of the activity-based approach to learning.

One of the new forms of effective learning technologies is problem-situational learning using case studies. The introduction of educational cases into the practice of Russian education is currently a very urgent task. A case is a description of a specific real situation, prepared in a specific format and designed to teach students to analyze different types information, its generalization, skills of problem formulation and development possible options its decision in accordance with the established criteria. The case technology (method) of teaching is learning by doing. The essence of the case method is that the assimilation of knowledge and the formation of skills is the result of active independent activity of students to resolve contradictions, as a result of which there is a creative mastery of professional knowledge, skills, abilities and the development of thinking abilities.

The term "case method", "case technology" translated from English as the concept "case" means:

1 - a description of a specific practical situation, a methodological teaching method according to the principle "from typical situations, examples - to the rule, and not vice versa," presupposes an active teaching method based on considering specific (real) situations from the practice of students' future activities, i.e. using the methodology of situational training "case - study";

2 - a set of specially developed teaching materials on various media (printed, audio, video and electronic materials), issued to pupils (students) for independent work.

The advantage of cases is the ability to optimally combine theory and practice, which seems to be quite important when training a specialist. The case method contributes to the development of the ability to analyze situations, evaluate alternatives, choose the best option and plan for its implementation. And if during the educational cycle this approach is applied many times, then the student develops a stable skill of solving practical problems.

How does a case differ from a problem situation? The case does not offer students the problem in an open form, and the participants in the educational process have to isolate it from the information contained in the description of the case.

The technology for working with a case in the educational process is relatively simple and includes the following stages:

Individual independent work trainees with case materials (identifying a problem, formulating key alternatives, proposing a solution or recommended action);

Work in small groups to agree on a vision of a key problem and its solutions;

Presentation and examination of the results of small groups at a general discussion (within a study group).

Case - stages:

Step 1: Formulate one specific problem and write it down.

Step 2: Identify and write down the main causes of its occurrence (the reasons are formulated with the words "not" and "no").

1 and 2 steps represent the "minus" situation. Further, it must be translated into a "plus" situation.

Step 3: The problem is reformulated into a goal.

Step 4: Causes become tasks.

Step 5: For each task, a set of measures is determined - steps to solve it; for each step, responsible persons are appointed who select a team to implement the measures.

Step 6: Responsible persons determine the necessary material resources and time to complete the event

Step 7: For each block of tasks, a specific product and criteria for the effectiveness of solving the problem are determined.

Distribution of functions between students and the teacher:

Work phase

Teacher actions

Student actions

Before class

1. Picks up the case

2. Determines the main and
auxiliary materials
to prepare students

3. Develops a script
classes

2.Individually prepared
to class

During the lesson

1. Organizes a preliminary discussion of the case

2. Divides the group into subgroups

3. Leads the discussion
case in subgroups, provides students with additional information

1. Asks questions that deepen understanding of the case and problem

2. Develops options
decisions, takes into account the opinions of others

3. Takes or participates in
decision making

After class

1. Evaluates student performance

2. Evaluates the decisions made and the questions posed

Draws up a written report on the lesson in a given form

Typically, cases are prepared in a package that includes:

  1. introductory case (information about the presence of a problem, situation, phenomenon; description of the boundaries of the phenomenon under consideration);
  2. information case(the amount of knowledge on a topic (problem), presented with varying degrees of detail);
  3. strategic case(developing the ability to analyze the environment in conditions of uncertainty and solve complex problems with hidden determinants);
  4. research case(similar to group or individual projects - the results of the analysis of a certain situation are presented in the form of a statement);
  5. training case(aimed at strengthening and more complete development of previously used tools and skills - logical, etc.).

In our lessons, we use case technologies when learning new topics, in repetitive and generalizing lessons. For example, a lesson in grade 11 on the topic"Redox reactions".

Educational objectives of the lesson: development of students' knowledge about the types of redox reactions: types of redox reactions, factors that determine the direction of redox, redox in solutions; development of skills to draw up OVR by various methods.Developmental lesson goals: development of knowledge of schoolchildren about chemical processes in the formation of knowledge about OVR.Educational purpose of the lesson: the formation of a scientific worldview.

Handouts: case with theoretical material - 6 pieces; a set of tasks with three levels of difficulty - 6 sets; tokens for distribution into groups; tokens to be given to groups for completed tasks;

The main stages of the lesson:

  1. Organizational activities. Teacher's word. Acquaintance with the course of the lesson.
  2. Working with the case. Analysis.
  3. Homework.
  4. Lesson summary.

During the classes:

Organizational issues.

Upon entering the office, students take tokens and sit in groups at the tables on which the token of their choice lies. The teacher introduces the course of work in the lesson.

Updating students' knowledge.

Formulate the concepts: oxidation state, oxidizing agent, reducing agent, oxidation, reduction.

Case study: teacher's introduction. The teacher introduces the children to the case. Working with the case. Analysis of the situation using the "Brainstorming on the board" method.

1 step - introduction to the problem

Stage 2 - collecting information on a case-task

3 step - decision making

4 step - consideration of alternatives

5 step - comparative analysis

6 step - presentation of solutions

Thus, case technologies in the educational process allow:

  1. To increase the motivation of students to learn;
  2. To develop the intellectual skills of students, which will be in demand by them in their further education and professional activity.

Bibliography:

  1. Polat E.S. Modern pedagogical and information technologies in the education system: a textbook for students. universities / Polat E.S. ; Bukharkina M.Yu. - 2nd ed., Erased. - M: Academy, 2008 .-- 368 p.
  2. Pozhitneva V.V. Case technologies for the development of giftedness // Chemistry in school.-2008.-№4.-С.13-17
  3. Polat E.S. Organization of distance learning in the Russian Federation // Informatics and education. - 2005. -№ 4, p.13-18
  4. Pyryeva VV Case study technology and its application in the study of the topic "Algorithms" // Informatics and Education. - 2009. -No. 11, p. 25-28

CASE technologies. Modern methods and tools for designing information systems

A.M. Vendrow

annotation

The purpose of this review is to introduce the features of modern methods and tools based on the use of CASE-technology. The reader should be able to make an informed, not voluntary, decision regarding the use of these technologies. The recommendations in this review can help you successfully implement CASE tools and reduce the risk of inappropriate investments.

Despite the high potential capabilities of CASE technology (increasing labor productivity, improving the quality of software products, maintaining a unified and consistent style of work), not all information system developers using CASE tools achieve the expected results.

There are various reasons for possible failures, but, apparently, the main reason is an inadequate understanding of the essence of programming information systems and the use of CASE tools. It is necessary to understand that the process of designing and developing an information system based on CASE technology cannot be similar to the process of cooking according to a cookbook. You should always be ready for new difficulties associated with mastering a new technology, consistently overcome these difficulties and consistently achieve the desired results.

The review is intended for beginners and experienced developers of information systems, for project managers and system analysts.

Introduction

Trends in the development of modern information technologies lead to a constant increase in the complexity of information systems (IS) created in various areas of the economy. Modern large IP projects are characterized, as a rule, by the following features:


  • the complexity of the description (a sufficiently large number of functions, processes, data elements and complex relationships between them), requiring careful modeling and analysis of data and processes;

  • the presence of a set of closely interacting components (subsystems) that have their own local tasks and goals of functioning (for example, traditional applications related to processing transactions and solving routine tasks, and applications of analytical processing (decision support) using ad hoc queries to large data);

  • lack of direct analogs, limiting the possibility of using any standard design solutions and applied systems;

  • the need to integrate existing and newly developed applications;

  • functioning in a heterogeneous environment on several hardware platforms;

  • disunity and heterogeneity of certain groups of developers in terms of skill level and established traditions of using certain tools;

  • significant time duration of the project, due, on the one hand, to the limited capabilities of the development team, and, on the other hand, to the scale of the customer organization and the varying degree of readiness of its individual departments to implement IS.
For successful implementation of the project, the design object (IS) must first of all be adequately described, complete and consistent functional and information models of the IS must be built. The experience of IC design accumulated to date shows that this is a logically complex, laborious and time-consuming work that requires high qualifications of the specialists participating in it. However, until recently, IC design was carried out mainly on an intuitive level using non-formalized methods based on art, practical experience, expert assessments and expensive experimental tests of the quality of the IC functioning. In addition, in the process of creating and operating an IS, the information needs of users may change or be refined, which further complicates the development and maintenance of such systems.

In the 70s and 80s, in the development of IS, a structural methodology was widely used, providing developers with strict formalized methods for describing IS and the technical decisions made. It is based on a visual graphic technique: schemes and diagrams are used to describe various types of IP models. The clarity and rigor of the structural analysis tools allowed the developers and future users of the system from the very beginning to informally participate in its creation, discuss and consolidate the understanding of the main technical solutions. However, the widespread use of this methodology and adherence to its recommendations in the development of specific ISs was quite rare, since with manual (manual) development it is almost impossible. Indeed, it is very difficult to manually develop and graphically represent strict formal system specifications, check them for completeness and consistency, and even more so change them. If, nevertheless, it is possible to create a strict system of project documents, then its revision when serious changes appear is practically impossible. Manual development usually gave rise to the following problems:


  • inadequate specification of requirements;

  • inability to detect errors in design decisions;

  • poor quality of documentation, reducing performance;

  • long cycle and poor test results.
On the other hand, IC designers have historically been the last to use computer technology to improve quality, reliability, and productivity in their own work (the "shoemaker without boots" phenomenon).

The listed factors contributed to the emergence of software and technological tools of a special class - CASE-tools that implement the CASE-technology for creating and maintaining IS. The term CASE (Computer Aided Software Engineering) is currently used in a very broad sense. The original meaning of the term CASE, limited to issues of automation of the development of only software (software), has now acquired a new meaning, covering the process of developing complex IP as a whole. Now, the term CASE tools means software tools that support the processes of creating and maintaining IS, including analysis and formulation of requirements, design of application software (applications) and databases, code generation, testing, documentation, quality assurance, configuration management and project management, and also other processes. CASE tools together with system software and hardware form a complete IS development environment.

The emergence of CASE-technology and CASE-tools was preceded by research in the field of programming methodology. Programming has acquired the features of a systems approach with the development and implementation of high-level languages, methods of structural and modular programming, design languages ​​and means of their support, formal and informal languages ​​for describing system requirements and specifications, etc. In addition, the emergence of CASE technology was facilitated by such factors as:


  • training analysts and programmers receptive to modular and structured programming concepts;

  • widespread introduction and constant growth of computer performance, which made it possible to use effective graphic tools and automate most of the design stages;

  • introduction of network technology, which made it possible to combine the efforts of individual performers into a single design process by using a shared database containing the necessary information about the project.
CASE-technology is a methodology for designing an IS, as well as a set of tools that allow you to visually model the subject area, analyze this model at all stages of development and maintenance of an IS and develop applications in accordance with the information needs of users. Most of the existing CASE tools are based on structural (mostly) or object-oriented analysis and design methodologies, using specifications in the form of diagrams or texts to describe external requirements, relationships between system models, dynamics of system behavior, and software architecture.

According to the Survey of Advanced Technology by Systems Development Inc. In 1996, according to the results of a survey of more than 1000 American firms, CASE technology is currently among the most stable information technologies (it was used by half of all surveyed users in more than a third of their projects, of which 85% were completed successfully). However, despite all the potential capabilities of CASE tools, there are many examples of their unsuccessful implementation, as a result of which CASE tools become shelfware. In this regard, the following should be noted:


  • CASE remedies do not necessarily have an immediate effect; it can only be received after some time;

  • the real costs of implementing CASE tools are usually much higher than the costs of acquiring them;

  • CASE tools provide opportunities for significant benefits only after successful completion of the implementation process.
In view of the diverse nature of CASE-tools, it would be a mistake to make any unconditional about the real satisfaction of certain expectations from their implementation. The following factors can be listed that complicate the determination of the possible effect of using CASE-tools:

  • a wide variety of quality and capabilities of CASE-tools;

  • relatively short time of using CASE-tools in various organizations and lack of experience in their use;

  • a wide variety in the practice of implementing various organizations;

  • lack of detailed metrics and data for already completed and ongoing projects;

  • a wide range of subject areas of projects;

  • varying degrees of CASE-tools integration in various projects.
Due to these complexities, the available information on actual implementations is extremely limited and inconsistent. It depends on the type of tools, the characteristics of the projects, the level of support, and the user experience. Some analysts believe that the real benefits of using some types of CASE tools can only be obtained after one or two years of experience. Others believe that the impact may actually manifest itself in the exploitation phase. life cycle IP when technological improvements can lead to lower operating costs.

For the successful implementation of CASE tools, an organization must have the following qualities:


  • Technology. Understanding the limitations of existing capabilities and the ability to embrace new technology;

  • Culture. Willingness to implement new processes and relationships between developers and users;

  • Control. Clear leadership and organization in relation to the most important milestones and implementation processes.
If the organization does not possess at least one of the listed qualities, then the implementation of CASE-tools can fail, regardless of the degree of thoroughness in following the various implementation recommendations.

In order to make an informed decision regarding investments in CASE technology, users are forced to evaluate individual CASE tools based on incomplete and contradictory data. This problem is often compounded by insufficient knowledge of all the possible pitfalls of using CASE tools. Among the most important problems are the following:


  • reliable assessment of the return on investment in CASE-funds is difficult due to the lack of acceptable metrics and data on projects and software development processes;

  • Implementing CASE tools can be a lengthy process and may not bring immediate benefits. There may even be a short-term decline in productivity as a result of implementation efforts. As a result, the user's management may lose interest in CASE-tools and stop supporting their implementation;

  • the lack of complete correspondence between those processes and methods that are supported by CASE-tools, and those used in this organization, can lead to additional difficulties;

  • CASE tools are often difficult to use in conjunction with other similar tools. This is due to both the different paradigms supported by different media and the problems of transferring data and control from one medium to another;

  • Some CASE tools take too much effort to justify their use in a small project, yet you can still benefit from the discipline that calls for their use;

  • the negative attitude of the staff to the introduction of new CASE-technology can be the main reason for the failure of the project.
Users of CASE tools must be prepared for the need for long-term operating costs, the frequent appearance of new versions and the possible rapid obsolescence of the tools, as well as the constant costs of training and professional development of personnel.

Despite all the warnings and some pessimism, a competent and reasonable approach to the use of CASE-tools can overcome all the difficulties listed. Successful implementation of CASE tools should provide such benefits as:


  • a high level of technological support for software development and maintenance processes;

  • positive impact on some or all of the listed factors: productivity, product quality, compliance with standards, documentation;

  • an acceptable level of return on investment in CASE funds.
^

1. Fundamentals of IC design methodology

1.1. IP life cycle

One of the basic concepts of the IS design methodology is the concept of the life cycle of its software (life cycle software). The life cycle of software is an ongoing process that begins from the moment a decision is made on the need to create it and ends at the moment of its complete withdrawal from service.

The main regulatory document governing software lifecycle is the international standard ISO / IEC 12207 (ISO - International Organization of Standardization - International Organization for Standardization, IEC - International Electrotechnical Commission - International Commission on Electrical Engineering). It defines the structure of the life cycle, containing the processes, actions and tasks that must be performed during the creation of software.

The structure of software lifecycle according to the ISO / IEC 12207 standard is based on three groups of processes:


  • main lifecycle software processes (purchase, delivery, development, operation, maintenance);

  • auxiliary processes that ensure the implementation of the main processes (documentation, configuration management, quality assurance, verification, certification, assessment, audit, problem solving);

  • organizational processes (project management, creation of project infrastructure, definition, assessment and improvement of the life cycle itself, training).
Development includes all work on the creation of software and its components in accordance with the specified requirements, including the preparation of design and operational documentation, preparation of materials necessary to check the operability and appropriate quality of software products, materials necessary for organizing personnel training, etc. Software development usually includes analysis, design and implementation (programming).

Operation includes work on the implementation of software components into operation, including configuring the database and user workstations, providing operational documentation, training personnel, etc., and direct operation, including localizing problems and eliminating the causes of their occurrence , software modification within the established regulations, preparation of proposals for the improvement, development and modernization of the system.

Project management is related to the planning and organization of work, the creation of development teams and control over the timing and quality of work performed. Technical and organizational support The project includes the choice of methods and tools for project implementation, determination of methods for describing intermediate states of development, development of methods and tools for software testing, personnel training, etc. Project quality assurance is associated with software verification, verification and testing issues. Verification is the process of determining whether the current state of development achieved at a given stage meets the requirements of that stage. Verification allows you to assess the compliance of development parameters with the original requirements. Verification overlaps with testing, which is concerned with identifying the differences between actual and expected results and assessing the conformity of the software characteristics to the original requirements. In the process of project implementation, an important place is occupied by issues of identification, description and configuration control. individual components and the entire system as a whole.

Configuration management is one of the auxiliary processes that support the main processes of the software life cycle, primarily the processes of software development and maintenance. When creating projects of complex IS, consisting of many components, each of which may have varieties or versions, the problem arises of taking into account their connections and functions, creating a unified structure and ensuring the development of the entire system. Configuration management allows you to organize, systematically take into account and control changes in software at all stages of the life cycle. General principles and recommendations for configuration accounting, planning and software configuration management are reflected in the draft ISO 12207-2 standard.

Each process is characterized by certain tasks and methods of their solution, initial data obtained at the previous stage, and results. The analysis results, in particular, are functional models, information models and their corresponding diagrams. The life cycle of software is iterative in nature: the results of the next stage often cause changes in design solutions developed at earlier stages.
^

1.2. Software life cycle models


ISO / IEC 12207 does not offer specific model Life cycle and software development methods (the life cycle model is understood as a structure that determines the sequence of execution and interrelation of processes, actions and tasks performed during the life cycle. The life cycle model depends on the specifics of the IS and the specifics of the conditions in which the latter is created and operates). Its regulations are common to any life cycle models, methodologies and development technologies. The ISO / IEC 12207 standard describes the structure of software lifecycle processes, but does not specify in detail how to implement or perform the activities and tasks included in these processes.

To date, the following two main models of life cycle have become most widespread:


  • cascade model (70-85);

  • spiral model (86-90).
In the original homogeneous ICs, each application was a single whole. To develop this type of application, a cascading method was used. Its main characteristic is the division of the entire development into stages, and the transition from one stage to the next occurs only after the work on the current one is completely completed (Fig. 1.1). Each stage ends with a release complete set sufficient documentation so that development can be continued by another development team.

The benefits of using the waterfall approach are as follows:


  • at each stage, a complete set of project documentation is formed that meets the criteria for completeness and consistency;

  • the stages of work performed in a logical sequence allow you to plan the timing of the completion of all work and the corresponding costs.

Rice. 1.1. Software development cascade

The waterfall approach has worked well for building ISs, for which, at the very beginning of development, all the requirements can be formulated accurately and fully enough in order to give developers the freedom to implement them as best as possible from a technical point of view. Complex settlement systems, real-time systems and other similar tasks fall into this category. However, in the process of using this approach, a number of its shortcomings were revealed, caused primarily by the fact that the real process of software development has never fully fit into such a rigid scheme. In the process of creating software, there was a constant need to return to previous stages and clarify or revise previously made decisions. As a result, the actual software development process took the following form (Fig. 1.2):

Rice. 1.2. The real process of software development in a waterfall scheme

The main disadvantage of the waterfall approach is a significant delay in obtaining results. The results are coordinated with users only at the points planned after the completion of each stage of work, the requirements for the IS are "frozen" in the form of a technical assignment for the entire time of its creation. Thus, users can make their comments only after the work on the system is fully completed. In the case of an inaccurate statement of requirements or their changes over a long period of software development, users receive a system that does not meet their needs. Models (both functional and informational) of an automated object can become outdated simultaneously with their approval.

To overcome these problems, a spiral model of the life cycle was proposed (Fig. 1.3), focusing on the initial stages of the life cycle: analysis and design. At these stages, the feasibility of technical solutions is verified by prototyping. Each turn of the spiral corresponds to the creation of a fragment or version of the software, on it the goals and characteristics of the project are specified, its quality is determined, and the work of the next turn of the spiral is planned. Thus, the details of the project are deepened and consistently specified, and as a result, a reasonable option is selected, which is brought to implementation.

Development by iterations reflects the objectively existing spiral cycle of system creation. Incomplete completion of work at each stage allows you to move on to the next stage without waiting for the complete completion of work at the current one. With an iterative development method, the missing work can be completed in the next iteration. The main task is to show the system users a workable product as soon as possible, thereby activating the process of specifying and supplementing the requirements.

The main problem of the spiral cycle is determining when to move to the next stage. To solve it, it is necessary to introduce time limits for each stage of the life cycle. The transition proceeds as planned, even if not all of the planned work has been completed. The plan is drawn up on the basis of statistical data obtained in previous projects, and personal experience developers.

Fig 1.3. Spiral Life Cycle Model
^

2.3. Modeling data flows (processes)


This methodology (the Gane / Sarson methodology) is based on the construction of a model of the analyzed IS - projected or actually existing. In accordance with the methodology, the system model is defined as a hierarchy of data flow diagrams (DFD or DFD), describing the asynchronous process of transforming information from its input into the system to its issuance to the user. Diagrams of the upper levels of the hierarchy (context diagrams) define the main processes or subsystems of the IS with external inputs and outputs. They are detailed using low-level diagrams. This decomposition continues, creating a multilevel hierarchy of diagrams, until such a level of decomposition is reached, at which the process becomes elementary and it is impossible to detail them further.

Sources of information (external entities) generate information flows (data flows) that carry information to subsystems or processes. These, in turn, transform information and generate new flows that transfer information to other processes or subsystems, data storage devices or external entities - information consumers. Thus, the main components of data flow diagrams are:


  • external entities;

  • systems / subsystems;

  • processes;

  • data storage devices;

  • data streams.

^

4.2. Evaluation and selection of CASE tools

4.2.1. General information


The model of the assessment and selection process, considered below (Figure 4.2), describes the most common situation of assessment and selection, and also shows the relationship between them. As you can see, assessment and selection can be performed independently or together, each of these processes requires the application of certain criteria.

The assessment and selection process can serve several purposes, including one or more of the following:


  • evaluation of several CASE-tools and selection of one or more of them;

  • evaluating one or more CASE-tools and saving the results for later use;

  • selection of one or more CASE-tools using the results of previous evaluations.

Rice. 4.2. Evaluation and selection process model

As you can see from the figure, the input to the assessment process is:


  • definition of user needs;

  • goals and limitations of the project;

  • data on available CASE-tools;

  • list of criteria used in the assessment process.
Assessment results may include the results of previous assessments. It should be kept in mind, however, that the set of criteria used in the previous assessment must be compatible with the current set. The specific implementation of the process (assessment and selection, assessment for future choices, or selection based on previous assessments) is determined by the goals listed above.

Process elements include:


  • goals, assumptions and constraints that can be refined during the process;

  • user needs, reflecting the quantitative and qualitative user requirements for CASE-tools;

  • criteria defining a set of parameters, in accordance with which the assessment and decision making on the choice is made;

  • formalized results of evaluations of one or more funds;

  • a recommended solution (usually either a selection decision or further evaluation).
The process of assessment and / or selection can only begin when an individual, group or organization has fully identified for itself specific needs and formalized them in the form of quantitative and qualitative requirements in a given subject area. The term "user requirements" hereinafter refers to just such formalized requirements.

The user must define a specific course of action and decision making with any necessary iterations. For example, a process can be represented as a decision tree with its sequential traversal and selection of subsets of candidates for a more detailed assessment. The description of the sequence of actions should determine the flow of data between them.

The definition of the list of criteria is based on user requirements and includes:


  • selection of criteria for use from the list below;

  • definition of additional criteria;

  • determination of the scope of use of each criterion (assessment, selection, or both);

  • defining one or more metrics for each assessment criterion;

  • assigning weight to each criterion when choosing.

Case-study analysis is a teaching method designed to improve skills and gain experience in the following areas: identifying, selecting and solving problems; working with information - understanding the meaning of the details described in the situation; analysis and synthesis of information and arguments; work with assumptions and conclusions; assessment of alternatives; making decisions; listening and understanding other people - group work skills.

The case-study method, or the method of specific situations(from English, case - a case, a situation), is a method of active problem-situational analysis based on learning by solving specific problems - situations (solving cases).

The method of specific situations (case-study method) refers to non-play simulation active methods.

The immediate goal of the case-study method is to analyze the situation - a case that arises in a specific state of affairs, and to develop a practical solution; the end of the process - the evaluation of the proposed algorithms and the choice of the best in the context of the problem posed.

Today, the case-study method has won leading positions, is actively used in foreign practice and is considered one of the most effective ways solutions to common problems.

Currently, two classic case-study schools coexist - Harvard (American) and Manchester (European). Within the framework of the first school, the goal of the method is to teach how to find the only correct solution, while the second presupposes a multivariate solution to the problem. American cases are larger in volume (20-25 pages of text plus 8-10 pages of illustrations), European cases are 1.5-2 times shorter.

So, case-studies are specific situations specially developed on the basis of factual material for the purpose of subsequent analysis. In the course of analyzing situations, the ability to work in a team, analyze and make management decisions is developed.

The case-study method is a tool that allows you to apply theoretical knowledge to solving practical problems. The method contributes to the development of independent thinking, the ability to listen and take into account an alternative point of view, to express your own reasonably. Using this method, it is possible to show and improve analytical and evaluative skills, learn how to work in a team, and find the most rational solution to the problem posed.

Being an interactive method, the case-study method gains a positive attitude from specialists in the social sphere, ensuring the development of theoretical positions and mastery practical use material; it influences the professionalization of specialists, contributes to the improvement of their qualifications. At the same time, the case-study method also acts as a way of thinking of a specialist, his special paradigm, which allows him to think and act in a different way, to renew his creative potential.

Case - an example taken from real life, is not just a truthful description of events, but a single information complex that allows you to understand the situation. A good case should meet the following requirements:

  • - correspond to the clearly set goal of creation;
  • - have an appropriate level of difficulty;
  • - illustrate several aspects of economic life;
  • - do not become outdated too quickly;
  • - be relevant today;
  • - illustrate typical situations;
  • -- develop analytical thinking;
  • - provoke discussion;
  • - have multiple solutions.

The case-study method has its own characteristics and technological features that make it possible to distinguish it from other technologies.

Features of the case-study method:

  • 1. The presence of a model of the socio-economic system, the state of which is considered at a certain discrete moment in time.
  • 2. Collective decision making.
  • 3. Multiple alternative solutions; fundamental absence of a single solution.
  • 4. One goal when making decisions.
  • 5. Availability of a system of group performance assessment.
  • 6. The presence of controlled emotional stress.

Technological features of the case-study method:

  • 1. The method is a specific type of research analytical technology, that is, it includes the operations of the research process, analytical procedures.
  • 2. The case-study method acts as a technology of collective interaction, the most important components of which are work in a group (or subgroups) and mutual exchange of information.
  • 3. The case-study method can be viewed as a synergistic technology, the essence of which is to prepare procedures for immersing a group in a situation, forming the effects of multiplying knowledge, insightful insight, sharing discoveries, etc.
  • 4. The case-study method integrates developmental education technologies, including procedures for individual, group and collective development, the formation of diverse personal qualities.
  • 5. The case-study method acts as a specific type of design technology. In a conventional design technology, the process of solving an existing problem through joint activities takes place, while in the case-study method, a problem is formed and ways to solve it on the basis of a case, which acts simultaneously as a technical task and a source of information for understanding options for effective actions.

Types and genres of cases, ways of presenting them. Cases can be classified according to various criteria. One of the widely used approaches to classifying cases is their complexity. At the same time, a distinction is made between:

  • - illustrative learning situations - cases, the purpose of which is on a certain practical example teach the algorithm for making the right decision in a certain situation;
  • - educational situations - cases with the formation of a problem, in which the situation is described in a specific period of time, problems are identified and clearly formulated; the purpose of such a case is to diagnose the situation and make an independent decision on the specified problem;
  • - educational situations - cases without the formation of a problem, in which a more complex than in the previous version is described, a situation where the problem is not clearly identified, but is presented in statistical data, assessments of public opinion, authorities, etc .; the purpose of such a case is to independently identify the problem, indicate alternative ways of solving it with an analysis of available resources;
  • - applied exercises, which describe a specific situation that has developed, it is proposed to find ways out of it; the purpose of such a case is to find ways to solve the problem.
  • 1. Practical cases. These cases should reflect the introduced situation or case as realistically as possible. This is a historical source, a real document, statistics in the dynamics of data, even a material artifact or a complex of the cited sources - the components of the case. This is a case of modeling a real event or a case of modeling a problem that needs to be solved. The purpose of this case is to practice the skills of refraction of knowledge and skills into the post-educational, professional-activity space of real life.
  • 2. Educational cases. Their main task is training. However, the degree of reality is more reduced to typical educational situations in which the automatism of skills and methods of finding solutions is being worked out. In these processes, it is important to practice the skills of synthesis, combining particular cases into typical, natural ones with the isolation of common characteristic elements, causes and factors, and possible consequences.
  • 3. Research Cases focused on inclusion in research activities, for example, based on the study of all available information and works of a number of authors, reconstruction of an event, a situation in the complex, development of a thematic project of a local, regional type, etc. Cases of this type may include the texts of scientists who worked on this research problem earlier, but used different approaches, sources or research methods.

Cases can be classified based on the goals and objectives of the learning process. In this case, the following types of cases can be distinguished:

  • - teaching analysis and assessment;
  • - training in problem solving and decision making;
  • - illustrating a problem, solution or concept as a whole.

Noteworthy is the classification of cases given by N. Fedyanin and V. Davidenko, who are well acquainted with the foreign experience of using the case-study method:

  • - highly structured case in which the minimal amount additional information; when working with it, a specialist must apply a certain model or formula; this type of problem has an optimal solution;
  • - "small sketches" (short vignetts), containing, as a rule, from one to ten pages of text and one or two pages of appendices; they only introduce key concepts;
  • - large unstructured cases (up to 50 pages) - the most complex of all types of cases; information in them is given very detailed, including completely unnecessary; the information most necessary for parsing, on the contrary, may be missing;
  • - ground breaking cases, when analyzing which specialists are required not only to apply already acquired theoretical knowledge and practical skills, but also to offer something new.

Some scientists believe that cases are "dead" and "alive". The "dead" cases include cases that contain all the information necessary for analysis. To "revive" the case, it is necessary to build it in such a way as to provoke the search for additional information for analysis. This approach allows the case to develop and remain relevant for a long time.

Cases can be presented in various forms: from several sentences on one page to many pages. However, it should be borne in mind that large cases cause some difficulties for students in comparison with small ones, especially when working for the first time. A case may contain a description of one event in one organization or the history of the development of many organizations over many years. The case may include well-known academic models or none of them.

There is no specific standard for presenting cases. As a rule, cases are presented in printed form or on electronic media, however, the inclusion of photographs, diagrams, tables in the text makes it more intuitive for students. Printed information or information on electronic media is easier to work with and analyze than information presented, for example, in audio or video versions; limited possibilities of multiple interactive viewing can lead to distortion of the primary information and errors.

Recently, multimedia presentation of cases has become more and more popular. The possibilities of multimedia presentation of cases allow avoiding the above-mentioned difficulties and combine the advantages of text information and interactive video.

According to the presence of a plot, cases are divided into plot and non-plot. Plot cases usually contain a story about the events that happened, include the actions of individuals and organizations. Plotless cases tend to hide the plot because a clear plot of the plot reveals a solution to a large extent. Outwardly, they are a collection of statistical materials, calculations, calculations that should help diagnose the situation, restore the plot.

The temporal sequence of the material also influences the genre features of the case. Cases in the mode from the past to the present are characterized by a natural temporal sequence of events, and they make it possible to well identify cause-and-effect relationships. Memory cases are characterized by the fact that time in them scrolls back: the heroes remember something, the memories themselves are fragmentary, often unsystematic, fragmentary, which creates difficulties in restoring time chains. In fact, the analysis of the case is reduced to the reconstruction of the situation, its comprehension in the aspect of a particular cognitive paradigm.

Finally, predictive cases provide quite detailed description events of the recent past and present, set the task of developing the best version of the hero's behavior in the future.

Depending on who is the subject of the case, they can be conditionally divided:

  • - on personal cases in which specific individuals, managers, politicians, leaders act;
  • - organizational and institutional differ in that organizations, enterprises, and their subdivisions operate in them;
  • - multi-subject cases usually include several actors.

The size of the case directly depends on its purpose. A mini-case, spanning from one to several pages, can be calculated to take part of a two-hour practical training... A medium-sized case usually takes a two-hour lesson, and a voluminous case, up to several tens of pages, can be used for several practical sessions.

There are cases with applications and without applications; cases with applications usually involve the formation of skills in calculating and analyzing statistical information.

By the type of methodological part, cases are question-based - when they are resolved, you need to give answers to the questions posed - or case-tasks that formulate a task or task.

Case structure and principles of its construction.

It is advisable to highlight the following main stages of case creation:

  • 1. Formation of didactic goals of the case, formulation of goals and objectives; identification of the “area of ​​responsibility” for the knowledge, skills and abilities of specialists.
  • 2. Definition of the problem situation.
  • 3. Construction program card case, consisting of the main theses that need to be embodied in the text.
  • 4. Search for an institutional system (firm, organization, department, etc.), which is directly related to the theses of the program map.
  • 5. Gathering information in the institutional system regarding the theses of the program case map.
  • 6. Building or choosing a model of the situation that reflects the activities of the institute; verification of its compliance with reality.
  • 7. Choice of case genre.
  • 8. Writing the text of the case.
  • 9. Diagnostics of the correctness and effectiveness of the case; conducting a methodological educational experiment, built according to one scheme or another, to find out the effectiveness of this case.
  • 10. Preparation of the final version of the case.
  • 11. Implementation of the case into practice, as well as its publication for the purpose of dissemination; in the event that the information contains data on a specific company, you must obtain permission to publish.
  • 12. Preparation of guidelines for the use of the case: development of tasks for specialists and possible questions for discussion and presentation of the case, a description of the proposed actions at the time of discussion of the case.

The case should:

  • - be written in an interesting, simple and intelligible language (it is advisable, if necessary, to quote the statements of employees - representatives of the company);
  • - differ in drama and problematicity; expressively define the core of the problem;
  • - show both positive and negative examples;
  • - meet the needs of the selected contingent, contain the necessary and sufficient amount of information.

The definition and qualification of the problem is extremely important in the process of constructing a model of a situation. At the same time, the text of the case should not suggest a single solution to the problem posed.

Requirements for the format and structure of the case.

The plot part is a description of the situation, containing information that makes it possible to understand the environment in which the situation develops, indicating the source of the data:

  • - the presence of a real-life situation on the basis of which the case was developed;
  • - the name of the company, the name of the product, the description of the product, its features;
  • - the names and positions of the main characters;
  • - a description of the state of the market in this area (products, consumers, production, distribution, etc.); analysis of the main competitors (their strategies, market positions, marketing and distribution policies);
  • - the general state of affairs in the company, its strengths and weaknesses; dealers and partners; management strategy; organizational relationships; key figures in the management team; manufacturing operations, products and processes; financial position of the company; marketing information; employee interaction.

Informational part - information that will allow you to correctly understand the development of events:

  • - stages of company development, important moments in the history of development, successes and failures;
  • - the style of the company, the management style of the leadership;
  • - a brief description of the problem, it is advisable to give several different points of view (as it is seen different participants events);
  • - a certain chronology of the development of the situation with an indication of actions or influencing factors, it is desirable to evaluate the results of their impact;
  • - the actions taken to eliminate the problem (if any), what results they gave;
  • - what resources can be allocated to solve this situation.

Methodical part - explains the place of this case in the structure of social work, formulates tasks for the analysis of the case for specialists.

The plot and informational parts can exist both relatively independent (information can be placed in the application), and closely intertwined. But in any case, its purpose and task must be clearly formulated.

As noted above, the case may contain video, audio, electronic materials, or any other.

Types of case analysis and tasks to be solved.

Case analysis is a process of solving a significant number of particular problems, which implies a constant presence in this process of generating ideas. Let us dwell on the characteristics of the main types of analysis that are most widespread and have a significant impact on the development of the case-study method.

Problem analysis is based on the concept of “problem”. As a matter of fact, problem analysis presupposes an awareness of the essence, specificity of a particular problem and ways of solving it. Problem analysis technology involves analytical work with the classification of problems in the following areas:

  • - definition of the problem formulation as an unmet social need;
  • - spatio-temporal statement of the problem, which involves the definition of the spatial and temporal boundaries of the problem;
  • - clarification of the type, nature of the problem, its main system characteristics (structure, functions, etc.);
  • - identification of patterns of development of the problem, its consequences;
  • - diagnostics of the problem solvability in principle;
  • - determining the resources that are needed to resolve the problem;
  • - development of organizational and managerial technologies for solving the problem;
  • - solution of a problem.

Causal analysis is based on causality; its main concepts are "cause" and "effect", which describe the relationship between phenomena. The technology of cause-effect analysis includes the following steps:

  • - the formulation of the object and subject of research;
  • - definition of some initiating events as possible reason and possible consequences explaining the object and subject of research;
  • - establishing the presence of a causal relationship, determining the cause and effect;
  • - diagnostics of the type of causal relationship, the establishment of its nature;
  • - finding out the place of this causal relationship in the structure of the causal chain;
  • - explanation by causality of the studied phenomena and processes.

Pragmatic (praxeological) analysis involves the understanding of an object, process, phenomenon from the point of view of more effective use in practical life. The main concepts of pragmatic analysis are “efficiency” - the achievement of a high result with minimal resources; “Effectiveness” - the ability to achieve the set goal; “Score” is a value that characterizes a particular phenomenon in terms of efficiency and effectiveness. Pragmatic analysis is carried out in several stages:

  • - comprehension of an object or process from the point of view of its functions;
  • - determining the effectiveness of the system;
  • - identification of those functions, the performance of which does not satisfy the demands to the system, analysis of the efficiency of the system;
  • - structural analysis of the system, identification of its structural problems, reasons for inefficiency;
  • - study of the capabilities of the system, its potential, unused reserves;
  • - development of proposals to improve the efficiency of the system.

Axiological analysis involves the analysis of an object, process, phenomenon in the value system. The need for this analysis is due to the fact that society is characterized by significant value differentiation. The values ​​of representatives of different social groups differ among themselves. Therefore, quite often in a democratic society, the problem of coordinating values, value partnership, without which normal interaction of people is impossible, arises. The method of axiological analysis has not yet taken shape. You can suggest the following scheme:

  • - identification of the set of evaluated objects;
  • - definition of criteria and assessment system;
  • - formation of a group of experts;
  • - carrying out an axiological examination;
  • - obtaining a system for evaluating objects;
  • - development of recommendations for improving the assessed objects.

Situational analysis is of particular importance when using the case-study method. This type of analysis is based on a set of techniques and methods for understanding the situation, its structure, determining its factors, development trends, etc. Situational analysis is based on the term “situation”, which is quite ambiguous. Despite the diversity of the understanding of the situation, it is possible to single out what is common that is characteristic of different conceptual approaches. First of all, it should be noted that the situation is the result of social changes, it follows from the previous situation and flows into the subsequent situation, that is, it is procedural. The success of the choice of a situation is determined by the degree of its correspondence to the knowledge being studied, as well as by the presence of non-standardness in it, some intrigue, which makes it interesting and stimulates research motivation.

Predictive analysis involves not developing, but using models of the future and ways to achieve it. In essence, this analysis boils down to predictive diagnostics, finding out the degree of conformity of the analyzed phenomenon or process to the future. It includes two types of analysis: normative predictive analysis, when the future state of the system is set and ways to achieve the future are determined, and exploratory predictive analysis, in which the situation of the future is determined by building trend models.

The recommendatory analysis is focused on making recommendations regarding the behavior of the actors in a certain situation. Recommended analysis plays a special role in the system of interaction between the researcher and the practitioner. It ensures the implementation of research results into practice. The main problem of this analysis is the problem of interaction and commonality of the language of the researcher and the practitioner-manager. The researcher must not only solve the problem theoretically, but also develop recommendations for improving the activities of a manager, setting them out in the categories of a language that the manager can understand. Recommended analysis differs from pragmatic analysis in that it involves the development of options for behavior in a certain situation (see Appendix 2).

Target program analysis is a further development of recommendatory analysis in the aspect of developing a program to achieve a specific goal. He focuses on developing detailed model achievements of the future.

Tasks solved in the process of implementing the case-study method:

  • 1. Implementation of problem structuring, which involves the allocation of a complex of problems of the situation, their typology, characteristics, consequences, ways of solving (problem analysis).
  • 2. Determination of characteristics, structure of the situation, its functions, interaction with the environment and internal environment (system analysis).
  • 3. Establishing the causes that led to the emergence of this situation, and the consequences of its deployment (cause-effect analysis).
  • 4. Diagnostics of the content of activity in a situation, its modeling and optimization (praxeological analysis).
  • 5. Building a system of assessing the situation, its components, conditions, consequences, actors (axiological analysis).
  • 6. Preparation of predictions about the probable, potential and desirable future (predictive analysis).
  • 7. Development of recommendations regarding the behavior of the actors in the situation (advisory analysis).
  • 8. Development of programs of activity in this situation (program-target analysis).

Based on the above methods of case analysis and general characteristics problems solved in the process of implementing the case-study method, it is possible to formulate basic recommendations for their solution.

The first is getting to know the situation and its peculiarities.

The second is highlighting the main problem (main problems), highlighting factors and personalities that can really affect.

The third is to suggest concepts or topics for brainstorming.

The fourth is the analysis of the consequences of making this or that decision.

The fifth stage is the solution of the case - the proposal of one or several options (sequence of actions), an indication of the possible occurrence of problems, the mechanisms for their prevention and solution.

Case analysis can be both specialized and comprehensive. Specialized analysis should focus on a specific issue or problem. Comprehensive (detailed) analysis implies a deep dive into the key issues of the case.

Material overview

Case technology. Case study method.Selevko G.K. Modern educational technologies:Tutorial. - M .: Public education, 1998 .-- 256 p.

History of the Case Study Method

The "homeland" of this method is the United States of America, and more precisely - the Harvard University School of Business. " It was first used in 1924. “The culturological basis for the emergence and development of the case method was the principle of“ precedent ”or“ case ”. “The Case Study method is most widely used in teaching economics and business sciences abroad. ... In its early stages, this method was widely used in postgraduate MBA courses ... This method of studying economics was proposed at Harvard University in America and has recently become widespread in the study of medicine, law, mathematics and other sciences. " “In Russia, the case method began to be used in teaching in the 1980s, first at Moscow State University, and then at academic and industrial institutes, and later at special training and retraining courses” [Smolyaninova O.G. Educational site on the case study method and methods of its use in the educational process of KSU].

Case Study Method Educational Resource

"The case method allows you to demonstrate academic theory from the point of view of real events ... It" allows students to become interested in studying the subject, contributes to the active assimilation of knowledge and skills in collecting, processing and analyzing information characterizing various situations "[Smolyaninova O.G. Educational site on the case study method and methods of its use in the educational process of KSU]:

“A good“ case ”teaches, as a rule, to look for non-trivial approaches, since it does not have the only correct solution. “I especially appreciate the independence of thinking in the method of working with 'cases', - says Peter Ekman. - In real business, there are five or six ways to solve a problem. And although there is a classic solution for every situation, this does not mean that it will be optimal. "You can make a good decision, and its results will lead to bad consequences. You can make a decision that everyone around you think is unsuccessful, but it will lead you to the desired results." [Davydenko V. How does a "case" differ from a suitcase?]

The CASE STUDY method promotes the development of various practical skills. "They can be described in one phrase - a creative solution to a problem and the formation of the ability to analyze the situation and make a decision" [Smolyaninova O.G. Didactic opportunities case-study method in teaching students].

The CASE STUDY method develops the following skills:

1. “Analytical skills.

These include: the ability to distinguish data from information, classify, highlight essential and non-essential information, analyze, present and extract it, find gaps in information and be able to restore them. Thinking clearly and logically. This is especially important when the information is not of high quality.

2. Practical skills.

The level of complexity of the problem presented in the case, reduced in comparison with the real situation, contributes to the formation in practice of the skills of using economic theory, methods and principles.

3. Creative skills.

Logic alone, as a rule, cannot solve the situation with CASE. Creative skills are very important in generating alternative solutions that cannot be found in a logical way.

4. Communication skills.

Among them are such as: the ability to conduct a discussion, convince others. Use visuals and other media, cooperate in groups, defend your own point of view, persuade opponents, draw up a short, persuasive report.

5. Social skills.

In the course of the CASE discussion, certain social skills are developed: assessing people's behavior, listening skills, supporting discussion or arguing the opposite opinion, controlling oneself, etc.

6. Introspection.

Disagreement in discussion promotes awareness and analysis of the opinions of others and one's own. The emerging moral and ethical problems require the formation of social skills for their solution ”[Smolyaninova O.G. Didactic possibilities of the case-study method in teaching students].

CASE STUDY design technology

The following main stages of CASE creation are distinguished: definition of goals, criterial selection of a situation, selection of necessary information sources, preparation of primary material in CASE, examination, preparation of methodological materials on its use [Smolyaninova O.G. Didactic possibilities of the case-study method in teaching students].

“1st stage. Determine the purpose of creating a CASE, for example, training in effective communication within the enterprise. To do this, you can develop a CASE for a specific well-known enterprise, describing its communications used by managers to organize work with personnel within the company. Develop questions and assignments that will allow students to master various types of communication (meetings at different levels, annual report, in-house newspaper, announcements, briefings, etc.).

2nd stage. Identify a specific real situation or firm (economic sector) corresponding to the goal.

3rd stage. Carry out preliminary work on finding sources of information for CASE. You can use search by keywords on the Internet, analysis of catalogs of printed publications, magazine articles, newspaper publications, statistical summaries.

4th stage. Collect information and data for CASE using various sources, including contacts with the firm.

5th stage. Prepare the initial version of the presentation of the material in CASE. This stage includes layout, material composition, definition of the presentation form (video, print, etc.)

6th stage. Obtain permission to publish CASE if the information contains data on a specific firm.

7th stage. Discuss CASE, involving as wide an audience as possible and get peer review before testing it. As a result of such an assessment, the necessary changes can be made and the CASE improved.

8th stage. Prepare guidelines on using CASE. Develop assignments for students and possible questions for discussion and presentation of CASE, describe the expected actions of students and the teacher at the time of discussion of CASE.

The entire process of preparing Case is based on the skills and abilities of working with information technology, which allows updating existing knowledge, activates research activities. For example, at the stage of collecting information, various sources are used based on modern communications: television, video, computer dictionaries, encyclopedias or databases accessible through communication systems. These sources often provide more extensive and more up-to-date information. The next stage of working with information is its processing, i.e. classification and analysis of the set of available facts to present an overall picture of the phenomenon or event under study. For the convenience of working with numerical information, it is necessary to present it in the form of tables, graphs and diagrams. In this case spreadsheets are the most effective remedy. Further, the students face the question of the Case presentation form, depending on which one can use either tools for creating electronic multimedia presentations or desktop publishing systems ”[Smolyaninova O.G. Didactic possibilities of the case-study method in teaching students.]

A distinctive feature of this CASE STUDY method is the creation of a problem situation based on facts from real life.

“The CASE STUDY method illustrates real life ... In order for the educational process based on CASE to be effective, two points are important: a good CASE and a certain methodology for using it in the educational process ... CASE is not just a truthful description of events, but a single information complex that allows you to understand the situation. In addition, it should include a set of questions prompting the solution of the problem posed. A good CASE must meet the following requirements:

- correspond to the clearly set goal of creation

- have an appropriate level of difficulty

- illustrate several aspects of economic life

- do not become outdated too quickly

- have a national color

- be relevant today

- illustrate typical situations in business

- develop analytical thinking

- provoke discussion

- have multiple solutions

Some scientists believe that cases are "dead" and "alive". The "dead" cases include cases that contain all the information necessary for analysis. To "revive" a case, it is necessary to build it in such a way as to provoke students to search for additional information for analysis. This allows the case to develop and remain relevant for a long time ”[Smolyaninova O.G. Didactic possibilities of the case-study method in teaching students].

There are several ways to get a "case" suitable for use in the educational process. First, you can buy a ready-made "case". It is inexpensive (E. Margvelashvili, internet article).

“It's not expensive, for example, one copy of a 'case' developed at Harvard or Darden costs only $ 10. In the West, the purchase and sale of "cases" prepared in business schools is a whole industry. Harvard alone produces about 700 cases a year. The complete list of "cases" that can be purchased for use in the educational process from the same HBS includes more than 7,500 items. There are even special organizations like the European Case Clearing House that distribute cases. In particular, ECCH brings together about 340 different participants, including INSEAD business schools, IESE, London Business School. "

"Information for the" case "can be obtained in two ways: conduct a special research (field research), involving the collection of financial and other information directly in the company, or work with open sources."

“The first method is widely used by Western business schools, and the second (since no money is allocated for collecting information for writing“ cases ”), has become widespread in Russia.

By some estimates, field research costs between $ 500 and several thousand dollars. As a rule, in each large Western university or business school a separate budget item is allocated for this, and a significant part of it is formed from the income that the university receives from the sale of its textbooks and manuals to students. But the budgets of Russian business schools, you understand, do not provide for such expenses.

The main problem faced by authors implementing this method in Russia is the closed nature of our business. “Representatives of companies,” notes Eleanor Vergiles, “sometimes interpret the concept of 'commercial secrets' too broadly. Often, authors have to change specific data, qualitative indicators, figures taken from the financial documents of the company that provided information about themselves in the case. persists, demonstrating positive or negative dynamics of development of an enterprise or company. "

In turn, the "armchair way" is also imperfect. "Cases" written with its use, as a rule, are guilty of a deficit of technological and strategic information, the absence of specific figures that can be taken only in the financial and accounting documentation of a company, and in Russia it does not fall into open sources. " Actually, we have no one to write "cases". Russian business schools are mainly taught by theoreticians - people with excellent academic background, but completely unfamiliar with the real business environment. In addition, "cases" also need to be able to write, this is not a free-form essay for you. There are only a few specialists who have passed the appropriate training in Russia ”. [Margvelashvili E. About the place of the "case" in the Russian business school // "Study Abroad" №10, 2000].

“The cases themselves, as a rule, are written by experienced teachers or groups of students (graduate students) under their sensitive guidance. Drawing up such teaching material requires painstaking work of gathering facts and figures. The fate of each case writing project largely depends on whether the company wants to disclose real information about its activities.

Many case authors describe the real problems of the company's management, and then agree with its management to change the numbers in the appropriate proportion. Names often need to be changed. However, it also happens the other way around, when the company's management provides all kinds of assistance.

Most of the case studies used in the world's business schools are written in American educational institutions. In particular, such well-known schools as Harvard and Wharton specialize in their preparation. Russian schools have not yet proven themselves in this field. This is understandable: firstly, such work is expensive. Secondly, companies are not interested in providing reliable information about themselves. "Those who prepare cases are even refused to give the balance sheet of the enterprise, which the company sends to the tax office, although ideally it should be published in the press at all," says Igor Lipsits.

However, something has already been written and even published. At the II Moscow case competition, one of the organizers of which was Mr. Lipsitz, the participants were offered to analyze cases from Russian business practice. And the National Training Foundation has even begun a large-scale project to create a database from Russian cases. Working with "cases" is also analyzed within the framework of MBA Advising courses offered by a number of Russian companies. So examples can already be found, and if you want to successfully study at a Western business school, our advice to you is to practice, and the more the better. " [Davydenko V. How does a "case" differ from a suitcase?]

“In Russia, the market for" cases "is still only at the stage of formation. According to Konstantin Kontor, the main difficulty lies in the unwillingness or inability of business schools to pay big money for "cases". Therefore, everyone strives to "steal" the material for free - for example, to borrow a collection of practical tasks and business games from a friend who has visited some Western business school, to make the required number of photocopies from it and use them in their teaching practice. Unfortunately, this method is very common. And as long as the situation remains so, the market will not be formed in a normal civilized form ”[Margvelashvili E. About the place of the“ case ”in the Russian business school //“ Study Abroad ”No. 10, 2000].

“Initially, the cases contained only real information, but in Russian practice, due to limited access fictitious situations are often used for information and the high cost of practical research ”. [What is a "case study" method and why is it needed?]

The technology of working with a case in the educational process

The technology of working with a case in the educational process includes the following stages: 1) individual independent work of trainees with case materials (identification of a problem, formulation of key alternatives, proposal of a solution or recommended action); 2) work in small groups to agree on the vision of the key problem and its solutions; 3) presentation and examination of the results of small groups at a general discussion (within the framework of the study group).

In case-based learning, “at least 6 discussion formats can be used:

1. “Teacher-student: Cross-examination.

Discussion between the teacher and you. Your comment, position or recommendation will be considered through a series of questions. The logic of your statements will undergo a thorough research, so be extremely careful.

2. Teacher-student: Devil's advocate.

This is usually a discussion between the teacher and you, but sometimes other students may participate as well. The teacher assumes a completely unsuitable role for the defense and asks you (and possibly others) to take the position of an advocate. You must actively think and reason, arrange facts, conceptual or theoretical information, your personal experience in a certain order.

3. Teacher-student: Hypothetical format.

Similar to the previous one, but there is one difference: the teacher will present a hypothetical situation that goes beyond your position or recommendation. You will be asked to rate this hypothetical situation. During the discussion, you should be open to the possible need to change your position.

4. Student-student: Confrontation and / or cooperation.

V this format discussion is conducted between students. Both cooperation and confrontation arise. For example, a classmate might challenge your position by providing new information. You or another student will try to “face off the challenge”. A spirit of cooperation and positive confrontation will allow you to learn more (as opposed to individual effort).

5. Student-student: "Play a role."

The teacher may ask you to take on a role and interact with other classmates in it.

6. Teacher-class: “Silent” format.

The teacher can raise a question that is initially directed to an individual and then to the whole class (since no one can answer). " [How case-based learning is structured].

Things to remember when preparing a CASE oral presentation: “information about the equipment needed and the timing of the presentation; presentation structure; level of detail; visual aids; rehearsal; planning a performance; freedom of speech ”[Smolyaninova O.G. Didactic possibilities of the case-study method in teaching students.]

“Oral presentation of CASE, while giving certain knowledge, has the property of a short-term effect on the trainees, and therefore is difficult for perception and memorization. Therefore, phrases should be simple, clear and as precise as possible ... It provides only partial memorization. It is forgotten, because for the majority it is impossible to memorize a large speech word for word. Only key points are remembered. Moreover, these key points are highly individual from individual to individual. And they may not be key at all for the presenter. "

“The shortness of time in speaking gives rise to 5 problems to keep in mind and try to avoid when preparing your presentation.

A) First of all problems, read the message. The written speech can be revised and rewritten by the author before he gives it to the audience. But it is not easy to present it to the same extent in a performance. Who can experience the same feelings that have already ended? The act of speaking requires planning. It is very difficult to do this and evaluate what has just been said.

B) If it is difficult to read oral speech, listening to it is no less easy task. Students can re-read the written sentence and remember what they did not understand the first time. But such a wonderful opportunity is not available in oral speech. In the process of ordinary listening, the listener mentally repeats the sentence, which is deposited in short-term memory. This means that in this moment he skips the next 2-3 sentences that the speaker says. The thread of reasoning is lost. The listener unconsciously rushes between what to "grab" and what to "skip". Often, he gives up and is included only at such entry points in speech such as "And now is my third statement."

C) Understanding is the goal of a short presentation. But what about long topics and long speeches? Without a save mechanism, most of what you said will be forgotten very quickly. Most people have brains with very limited memory capacity. If what is being said now refers to something that was said earlier, then there is a very shaky foundation in the listener's memory for realizing this. The audience needs to be given a foundation of some permanent forms that can always be referenced and rely on. Listeners need structure.

E) The next problem has to do with talented students. There are usually many fewer of them than you might think. It's easy to overestimate them. Anyone who presents CASE is familiar or must be absolutely familiar with the material. However, it is hard to believe how many times students present material that they see for the first time. In their strong desire to communicate, students overwhelm the audience.

E) back side This problem is the underestimation of the time required for the presentation by the students. Under the pressure of time, the speaker begins to rush and try to turn a quarter into an hour. The result is instructive - a very average presentation.

There are many problems in the oral presentation of the CASE, but there are also advantages. Among them, two main ones can be distinguished.

A) An oral presentation is more compelling, much more compelling than a written one. A live presentation, especially if the speaker is speaking with interest and enthusiasm, is hard to ignore. The speaker's attitude and emotions contribute significantly to the message.

B) Oral presentation still has potential that is used less often than it could - it is flexible. The speaker can respond to changes in the environment: human, physical or temporary. He can also adapt his style and even material, feeling the mood of the audience. However, such a speaker can only be one who has daily communication practice. In addition, such a speaker needs organizational survival skills. ” Alternative structures for oral presentation are presented below.

Alternative 1

Alternative 2

Alternative 3

Why are these

Why not those

Confirmation of evidence

Attention grabbing plan

Background

Problem formulation

Alternatives and analysis

Implementation plan

Reformulation of the problem / solution

What needs to be done / How it will benefit

Questions

Plan

Conclusions.

Problems

Alternatives

[Smolyaninova O.G. Didactic possibilities of the case-study method in teaching students.]

Possibilities of using CASE in training

Any CASE enables the teacher to use it at various stages of the educational process: at the learning stage, at the stage of checking the learning outcomes.

“Recently, it has become more and more popular to use CASEs not only at the stage of teaching students, but also when checking learning outcomes in exams. Students receive CASEs before the exam, they must analyze it and bring the examiner a report with answers to the questions posed in it. Of course, you can offer students CASE right on the exam, but then it should be short and simple enough to meet the limited time frame.

The use of CASEs in the learning process is usually based on two methods. The first is called the traditional Harvard method - open discussion. Alternative method is a method associated with an individual or group survey, during which students make a formal oral assessment of the situation and offer an analysis of the presented CASE, their solutions and recommendations. This method makes it easier for the teacher to exercise control, although it allows some students to minimize their learning efforts (each student is interviewed once twice per lesson). The method develops students' communication skills, teaches them to clearly express their thoughts. However, this method is less dynamic than the Harvard method. In an open discussion, the organization and control of the participants is more difficult.

In a free discussion, the teacher usually asks the question at the beginning: "What do you think is the main problem here?" Then he leads the discussion, listening to the arguments, pros and cons and explanations for them, and controlling the process of the discussion, but not its content, waiting at the end of the written analysis of the CASE from the individual participant or groups. This report is submitted either at the end of the discussion or after some time has elapsed, which allows students to more carefully analyze all the information obtained during the discussion "[Smolyaninova O.G. Didactic possibilities of the case-study method in teaching students].

Cases have a number of similarities with tasks or exercises, but they also have a number of fundamental distinctive features: helps students acquire a range of practical skills, teaches how to solve complex unstructured problems.

“At first glance, the task looks like a CASE, which describes some fictional situation, but the goals of using tasks and CASEs in training are different. Problems provide material that enables students to explore and apply specific theories, methods, and principles. Learning with CASEs helps students acquire a wide variety of skills. Problems have one solution and one path leading to this solution. CASEs have many solutions and many alternative paths leading to it. The main function of the CASE method is to teach students to solve complex unstructured problems that cannot be solved analytically "[Smolyaninova O.G. Didactic possibilities of the case-study method in teaching students].

“Do not assume that" cases "can replace lectures. "You can't spend all of your time just looking at specific examples, because that creates a stereotypical, biased approach to solving similar problems, and the student will not be able to rise to a higher level of generalization," says Peter Ekman. - "Cases" show how economic theories are applied in practice. For me, the value of such exercises, if they do not have a theoretical "filling", is not great "[V. Davidenko, How is a" case "different from a suitcase?]

“At Harvard Business School, most of the cases used in modern business schools are still being created. In Western business schools, 30-40% of the study time is devoted to the analysis of cases. " [What is a "case study" method and why is it needed? ]

“On average, 35-40% of the study time is devoted to the analysis of typical situations. At the University of Chicago Business School, "cases" account for 25% of the time, at Columbia Business School - 30%, and at the famous Wharton - 40%. The leader in terms of the number of hours allotted to classes in this method, its "discoverer" - Harvard. An ordinary student of HBS during his studies analyzes up to 700 "cases" "[Margvelashvili E. About the place of the" case "in the Russian business school //" Study Abroad "№10, 2000]

Boundaries of using the "case": this teaching method requires a lot of time, it cannot be used in a large audience (Krasnova T.I., analyst of the Center for Problems of Development of the Belarusian State University, on the basis of working with literature using the case method).

CASE structure and types

CASE - a single information complex “As a rule, a case consists of three parts: supporting information required for case analysis; description of a specific situation; tasks for the case ". [What is a "case study" method and why is it needed?]

CASEs can be presented in various forms: from several sentences on one page to many pages. CASE presentation types: print, multimedia, video.

“The forms of presentation of CASE are varied, it can be presented in the form of several sentences on one page, or, for example, it can be presented as a description of the history of the development of many organizations over many years (the framework of economic education), or as a description of one event in one organization, and can be represented by large voluminous text. CASE "may include known academic models or none."

"However, it should be remembered that large cases cause some difficulties for students compared to small ones, especially when working for the first time."

“There is no defined standard for the presentation of CASE. CASEs are usually presented in printed form, but the inclusion of photographs, diagrams, tables in the text makes it more intuitive for students. Recently, multimedia presentations are becoming more and more popular. However, film, video and audio presentations can create some problems. Printed information is easier to work with and analyze than information presented, for example, in a film. Limited opportunities repeated interactive viewing can lead to information distortion and errors. The possibilities of multimedia presentation of CASEs allow to avoid the above-mentioned difficulties and combine the advantages of text information and interactive video. " [Smolyaninova O.G. Didactic possibilities of the case-study method in teaching students.]

Cases can be typologized according to the preparation method: “library”, “public”, classic and “cabinet”.

Specific situations may differ in the way they are prepared. If, from the point of view of the place of writing, the cases can be prepared in the “field” (that is, at the facility - a firm or company) or at the teacher's desk, and the sources used in the cases are formal (i.e. public) or informal (i.e. ie obtained from the original source) character, then in the combinations of these two variables four types of cases are formed: "library", "public", classic and "armchair" [Smolyaninova O.G. Didactic possibilities of the case-study method in teaching students].

“Depending on the specific goals of teaching management, the cases can be very different in the content and organization of the material presented in them: cases teaching analysis and assessment; cases teaching problem solving and decision making; case studies illustrating a problem, solution or concept as a whole. The specific situations of the cases teaching analysis and assessment are, in turn, divided into extra-organizational and intra-organizational ”[Smolyaninova O.G. Didactic possibilities of the case-study method in teaching students].

Types of cases by content: cases teaching analysis and assessment; cases teaching problem solving and decision making; case studies illustrating a problem, solution or concept as a whole. The specific situations of the cases teaching analysis and assessment are divided into extra-organizational and intra-organizational.

“Non-organizational cases mainly deal with the analysis and understanding of the state of the environment of a business organization, its external environment. Therefore, such cases describe in detail the problems around the organization (ecology, laws, reforms, etc.); they are easy to distinguish from other cases due to the lack of in-depth materials about the organization itself. The sources of the case are "library" materials from newspapers, magazines and reports. In intra-organizational cases, the emphasis is on facts and events within the business organization. Such cases are used in courses on organizational management problems and "human" relations. Cases that teach problem solving and decision making are very popular. First of all, such cases provide that the decision should be made on the basis of insufficient or redundant information, facts, data and events described in the cases. Thus, students are brought closer to reality, learn to build "relationships" between the available information and the generated solution. Solution cases are prepared exclusively on the basis of "field" research or "generalized" experience. Substantively, the material in such cases should reveal signs of organizational conflict, multivariance of decision-making methods and alternativeness of decisions themselves, subjectivity and role behavior, dynamics of events and the possibility of implementing the proposed solution ”[Smolyaninova O.G. Didactic possibilities of the case-study method in teaching students].

Cases are distinguished by the way the material is organized in it: structured cases, "small sketches", large unstructured "cases", "pioneering cases".

“In general, there are several types of such tasks. One is a highly structured case study that provides a minimal amount of additional information. When working with it, the student must apply a specific model or formula. It is believed that problems of this type have an optimal solution, and the "flight of imagination" when analyzing them may not be entirely appropriate. Another type is "short vignettes", usually containing 1-10 pages of text and one or two pages of annexes. They introduce only key concepts, so when analyzing them, the student must also rely on his own knowledge.

Long unstructured cases of up to 50 pages are perhaps the most difficult of all types of study assignments of this kind. They provide very detailed information, including completely unnecessary information. The information most necessary for parsing, on the contrary, may be missing. The student must recognize such tricks in time and cope with them with dignity.

There are also assignments where students and teachers act as researchers. Analyzing such ground breaking cases, it is required not only to apply the already acquired theoretical knowledge or practical skills, but also to offer something new ”[V. Davidenko, How is a“ case ”different from a suitcase?]

Case Study Learning Activities

Peculiarities of case analysis: identification of a key problem, selection of the necessary information (the general rule of working with "cases" is a ban on the use of information that is "outside the scope"), choice of a method of work (application of concepts, mathematical methods, assessment of an alternative course of action, etc.). NS.). “First of all, it is necessary to identify the key problems of the" case "and understand which information from the presented is important for their solution. Sometimes it happens that redundant information is deliberately given that needs to be identified and cut off. It is necessary to enter the situational context of the "case", determine who its main characters are, select the facts and concepts required for analysis, understand what difficulties may arise in solving the problem.

When starting to analyze the "case", it is necessary to pay attention not only to the text itself, but also to its exhibits. These can include financial balance sheet, organization chart, income statements, etc.

Once you understand the assignment, try to choose a method for your work. Often it depends on the topic of the "case". For example, marketing "cases" will require the application of concepts and concepts from this area. Some problems can be solved using specialized linear programming mathematical formulas. In this case, you should focus on choosing an adequate mathematical model and explaining the results obtained.

Identifying and evaluating alternative courses of action is a common method of reviewing many case studies. For the effectiveness of the analysis, it is good to support your opinion with facts from the "case", examples from personal experience, etc. Remember that there is always an alternative to even the most correct decision in your opinion.

The general rule of working with "cases" is that you cannot use information that is "outside the scope". For example, if you read an article in a newspaper about the very company whose problems are described in the assignment, it is forbidden to take facts from it. And this is quite logical, because the manager making the decision (and the situation is simulated when you are in his place) did not have the information you know at that moment. It also happens that students, on the contrary, have the opportunity to add facts from a specific market situation that existed in the period under consideration. In such cases, erudition and the degree of mastery of the material are taken into account ”[V. Davidenko, How is the“ case ”different from the suitcase?]

One of the possible effective approaches to analysis: identifying the key problems of the case, choosing a general approach to analysis, determining the focus of the case, determining the type of analysis that will be directly used.

"1. Determine if there are “unidentified” questions that are relevant to the key questions of the case. To identify such questions, one must take into account the nature of the course and the topic of the case. Another way: what would you ask your classmates at the teacher's place.

2. General analytical approach to case analysis. There are many approaches. You choose it yourself, based in part on the type of case. For example, marketing cases will require the application of marketing concepts and marketing conceptual frameworks. A common approach for most cases is to identify and evaluate an alternative course of action. Remember that effective analysis means that you will back up your opinion with facts from the case, examples from personal experience, and so on.

3. Determine how to focus your analysis (choose the tools and facts needed to logically support your recommendations). A good case usually contains a wealth of information and details of a specific business situation, so it is important to highlight the main facts.

4. Determine the specific level or type of analysis that you will present in the classroom ”[How case-based learning is structured]

Types of case analysis: Comprehensive (detailed) analysis, "start analysis", cursory analysis, integrated.

“There are many levels and varieties of case analysis, from which some general types can be distinguished. Comprehensive (detailed) analysis implies a deep dive into the key issues of the "case", including recommended actions with qualitative and quantitative support.

Specialized analysis focuses on a specific issue or problem; at the same time, you should try to make your analysis deeper and more detailed than that of other students.

Another method is called "onset analysis". Here you need to focus on the question that you think your instructor will ask first. At the same time, you may not be required to consider in detail. specific problem, but only asked to outline the circle of the main questions for discussion ”[V. Davidenko How is the“ case ”different from the suitcase? // "Study Abroad" №7, 2000]

A quick analysis "provides a superficial or general treatment of the assigned questions and precisely defined problems. At the same time, this analysis is part of a strategy that is designed to keep you unprepared. "

“Integrated analysis takes many forms, but mostly includes information not from the case, but from other sources: annual industry reports, technical notes, personal experience. The analysis is carried out in order to utilize information from such sources (to “enrich” the analysis of a specific problem). " [How case-based learning is structured]

Positions of the trainee in the Case Study: "expert-eyewitness", "guarantor", "entered into the image", "provider of facts", "expert in the industry", "I have experience", "inquirer", "packer".

“Sometimes the instructor will ask you to take on a specific functional role. For example, the role of the expert witness role, who has strong knowledge of one or more of the case issues and is able to do both in-depth and specialized analysis. You may also find yourself in the "bail them out" role. Having seen a successful solution before others, you will wait until the other participants in the analysis come to a dead end.

In some cases, you will be asked to "assume-a-personality" role so that you can feel the situation "on your own skin". You have to analyze the nature of a particular person and identify yourself with, say, Mr. Jones, the production manager. The teacher and the rest of the students will turn to you specifically for the opinion of Mr. Jones.

Sometimes the student has to play the "get the facts out" role. Such a role can be a salvation for those who are not sufficiently prepared for the analysis of cases - after all, its essence boils down to conducting a cursory analysis of the situation. At the same time, you must join the discussion as early as possible, otherwise someone else will make your speech.

The industry expert role is somewhat similar to the role of the eyewitness expert. The difference lies in the fact that an "industry expert", as they say, "by position" analyzes the influence of industry development trends on the specific situation of the "case".

By appealing to your own experience, you will be taking a position that can be called the "I have got experience" role. When using the Socratic method underlying case analysis, someone will take on the "questioning" role, who asks other students key questions regarding the course and purpose of their analysis. This role is only effective if the questions help the rest of the group to deepen and improve the analysis.

Each group should have a student playing the "Wrap it up" role. Despite the ugly name, this role is perhaps the most important. The implementer integrates the various analyzes presented in the classroom and links them to the main problems of the "case". That is, his task is to try to tie together the key points of the discussion. You should be ready in advance to answer the question asked by the teacher at the end of the analysis: "What have we learned today?" At the same time, your answer should not be a simple retelling of points of view, but a kind of "sum of opinions", sketches of collectively worked out solutions. Therefore, the "packer" is recommended to keep the so-called FIG List (facts, ideas, generalizations), in which the turning points of the discussion and the methods used in the work are briefly recorded ”[V. Davidenko, How is the" case "different from the briefcase?].

Teaching activities in the Case Study

There are 3 possible strategies for the behavior of a teacher (teacher) in the course of working with a case:

1. The teacher will give clues in the form of additional questions or (additional) information;

2. Under certain conditions, the teacher will give the answer himself;

3. The teacher can do nothing (remain silent) while someone is working on the problem. " [How case-based learning is structured] “The teacher can take an“ active ”or“ passive ”role when analyzing a learning situation. Sometimes he "conducts" the analysis, and sometimes he confines himself to summing up the results of the discussion. Seeing an interesting line of evidence, he can support it or even insist that it become a priority, taking others out of the field. "

“When examining a case in class, I usually tell which decision I think is correct, and then ask students to find a weak side in my point of view. This helps them develop their own perspective on the problem, ”says Peter Ekman.

The teacher can arrange a real "interrogation with addiction", as they say, one-on-one. Your statement, position or recommendation will be tested through a "barrage" of questions, and the logic of all the statements you make will be thoroughly analyzed. You should be extremely careful here. Sometimes a teacher can "put a pig on you" by forcing you to act as a "devil's advocate." In this case, you will have to defend a completely disastrous position, calling on all your professional skills to help.

If the teacher chooses the "hypothetical format" of the discussion, then he will present a situation that goes beyond your position or recommendation. And you will need to assess this situation. The undoubted plus of this format is that during the discussion you must be ready to change your position. It is possible that the teacher will baffle you by asking a question that no one in the class can answer. The format, when the teacher asks a question first to one student, then to the whole class, and the answer is a friendly silence, is called "silent" "[V. Davidenko, How is the" case "different from the suitcase?].

Case Study Opportunities as a Personnel Selection Method

"The case method is increasingly being used not only as a training method, but also as a personnel selection method."

“As already mentioned, cases are used not only in training, but also as a method for evaluating candidates when hiring. If you are going through a competition for a position in a large company, then you will surely come across this. As a rule, case analysis is used as one of the tasks when evaluating candidates using the assessment center method, which is considered the most effective and promising method of personnel selection. The essence of this method is that a group of participants goes through a variety of tests, among which the main role is given to solving cases and presentations. The participants are monitored (often their actions are recorded on video), and then all the actions of the participants are carefully analyzed and a conclusion is drawn up for each of them, containing an assessment of business and personal qualities. When examining a case when selecting a job, remember that there is no unequivocally correct solution here. Therefore, your goal is not to find a definite answer, but to demonstrate your analytical skills to the employer. When giving you such a task, the employer, first of all, wants to know how you think and how you are able to apply theoretical knowledge in practice. If the case is well versed in a group, then your communication skills and the ability to work effectively in a team are also tested here. Therefore, it is important here not only to develop your own course of action, but also to listen to your opponents, convince them that you are right, and if necessary, adjust your method of solving the problem, taking into account the opinions of your opponents ”[What is a“ case study ”method and why is it needed? ]

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