Color coding of transistors online calculator. Marking of radio components and radio elements

Resistors, especially low-power ones, are quite small parts; a 0.125W resistor has a length of several millimeters and a diameter of the order of a millimeter. It is difficult to read the digital denomination on such a part, and they are marked with colored stripes.

The calculator allows you to calculate the resistance and resistance tolerance of resistors with color markings in the form of 4 or 5 colored rings. The resistor must be positioned so that the rings are shifted to the left edge or the wide strip is on the left.

The main task of any resistor is to linearly convert current (amps) into voltage (volts), limit the current, weaken the power supply and absorb electricity. Resistors are used in all complex circuits and for the operation of complex semiconductors. Given the small size of the element, it is impossible to apply readable alphabetic or numerical designations, so color marking is used. In this article we will look at what the colored dots and lines mean, their color, and explain how to choose the right resistor.

Input data

First, let's turn to Wikipedia, which gives a clear understanding of what any resistor is. Literally translated from English, the term means resistance. Indeed, the purpose of resistors with a constant or variable value is the linear conversion of current into voltage, voltage into force, etc.

The marking color, order and encryption of digital codes in resistors are determined by GOST 175-72 in accordance with the requirements of Publication 62 of the International Electrotechnical Commission. According to these standards, rings are used for identification, the color and quantity of which are clearly regulated

The stripes are always offset relative to one pin, and are read as in Arabic writing - from left to right. If the size of the passive element does not allow the beginning to be visually noticeably marked, the width of the first stripe is made approximately 1.5-2 times thicker than the others.

On resistors with a minimum tolerance value (up to 10%), 5 rings are applied, of which:

• 4 – multiplier;
• 5 – maximum permissible deviation.

With a permissible deviation of 10% there are already four bands, where:

• 1, 2, 3 – resistance coefficient, units. Ohm;
• 4 – multiplier.

Resistors with a tolerance of 20% have only 3 bands, where the deviation is also not indicated, but only the first 2 rings are allocated to the resistance coefficient.

The power of a resistor can be determined by its dimensions.

Infrequently, you can also find 6-line markings, where:

• 1, 2, 3 – resistance value, units. Ohm;
• 4 – multiplier;
• 5 – regulatory tolerance;
• 6 - temperature coefficient of change

The last (sixth) band is needed to understand how much the resistance will change if the body of the passive element starts to heat up.

VIDEO: How a resistor works

Why are identification marks needed?

The smallest resistors with a power of 0.125 wt are only 3-4 mm long and 1 mm in diameter. It’s difficult to even read any information on such a miniature, let alone apply it. You can, of course, write the current strength, for example, 4K7, which corresponds to 4700 Ohms, but this information is extremely insufficient.

Color coding of resistors is much more practical due to the following:

• very easy to apply;
• easy to read;
• contains all the required information about the nominal parameters;
• remains intact and visible throughout the entire period of operation.

Also, by counting the number of stripes, you can determine the accuracy of the parameters:

• 3 – error 20%;
• 4 – 5-10%;
• 5-6 – 0-0,9%

In order to find out exactly which resistor is needed and with which strips, you can install it yourself using the table or use the online calculator (at the end of the article).

Universal table:

Using these table values, you can quickly determine the rating of the passive element, and the value is the order of the strip or dot, which allows you to obtain numerical data.

The colors represent different data - the mark number, the multiplier and the permissible deviation.

Using a universal table, we will read what is hidden on a given element. So, we have 4 stripes:

• brown,
• black,
• red,
• silver

Black, gold and white colors are never marked first.

Explanation:

1. The first place is occupied by a brown stripe, which denotes both a digital symbol (1) and a multiplier (10).
2. Black (0) - with this combination, the electrical resistance means 1 kOhm - 1K0.
3. Red – multiplier, equal to 100.
4. Silver - designation of the maximum permissible deviation, which here is 10%. The same data can be obtained by simply counting the number of stripes.

How to “read” wirewound resistors

The same GOST 175-72 and IEC Publication 62 apply to this type of passive elements, respectively, the colors, number of stripes and order are similar to the “barrels”, but there are certain nuances:

• the widest stripe is white, unreadable and only indicates the type of element;
• more than 4 decimal indicators are not applied;
• The last stripe in the row determines the distinctive properties, often fire resistance.

Taking into account these features, it is better to compare the data with a summary table of wire samples.

Foreign products

And although our standards are fully consistent with international ones, and Publication 62 is an imperative standard, some companies have their own striping and color selection rules that must be taken into account:

Philips

It has its own standard of symbols and colors, according to which, along with the nominal values, the resistor conveys information about the production technology and characteristics of the components.

CGW and Panasonic

Use additional colors to indicate additional properties of passive circuit elements.

In general, all markings coincide with the previously given values ​​and tables, only these companies have further simplified the task of identifying the denomination. At the same time, the resistors are interchangeable and neither Philips, nor CGW and Panasonic make any demands regarding the original.

In order to understand exactly what performance characteristics are required and what resistors should be purchased for a specific purpose, use the simple service

By entering the initial data, you can obtain information for each marking color that corresponds to a specific digital code.

VIDEO: Calculation of resistor resistance

Content:

Beginning radio amateurs are often faced with the problem of identifying radio components on diagrams and correctly reading their markings. The main difficulty lies in the large number of names of elements, which are represented by transistors, resistors, capacitors, diodes and other parts. Its practical implementation and normal operation of the finished product largely depend on how correctly the diagram is read.

Resistors

Resistors include radio components that have a strictly defined resistance to the electric current flowing through them. This function is designed to reduce the current in the circuit. For example, to make a lamp shine less brightly, power is supplied to it through a resistor. The higher the resistance of the resistor, the less the lamp will glow. For fixed resistors, the resistance remains unchanged, while variable resistors can change their resistance from zero to the maximum possible value.

Each constant resistor has two main parameters - power and resistance. The power value is indicated on the diagram not with alphabetic or numerical symbols, but with the help of special lines. The power itself is determined by the formula: P = U x I, that is, equal to the product of voltage and current. This parameter is important because a particular resistor can only withstand a certain amount of power. If this value is exceeded, the element will simply burn out, since heat is released during the passage of current through the resistance. Therefore, in the figure, each line marked on the resistor corresponds to a certain power.

There are other ways to designate resistors in diagrams:

1. On the circuit diagrams, the serial number is indicated in accordance with the location (R1) and the resistance value is equal to 12K. The letter “K” is a multiple prefix and means 1000. That is, 12K corresponds to 12,000 ohms or 12 kilo-ohms. If the letter “M” is present in the marking, this indicates 12,000,000 ohms or 12 megaohms.
2. In marking with letters and numbers, the letter symbols E, K and M correspond to certain multiple prefixes. So the letter E = 1, K = 1000, M = 1000000. The decoding of the symbols will look like this: 15E - 15 Ohm; K15 - 0.15 Ohm - 150 Ohm; 1K5 - 1.5 kOhm; 15K - 15 kOhm; M15 - 0.15M - 150 kOhm; 1M2 - 1.5 mOhm; 15M - 15mOhm.
3. In this case, only digital designations are used. Each includes three digits. The first two of them correspond to the value, and the third - to the multiplier. Thus, the factors are: 0, 1, 2, 3 and 4. They indicate the number of zeros added to the base value. For example, 150 - 15 Ohm; 151 - 150 Ohm; 152 - 1500 Ohm; 153 - 15000 Ohm; 154 - 120000 Ohm.

Fixed resistors

The name of constant resistors is associated with their nominal resistance, which remains unchanged throughout the entire period of operation. They differ depending on the design and materials.

Wire elements consist of metal wires. In some cases, high resistivity alloys may be used. The basis for winding the wire is a ceramic frame. These resistors have high nominal accuracy, but a serious drawback is the presence of a large self-inductance. In the manufacture of film metal resistors, a metal with high resistivity is sprayed onto a ceramic base. Due to their qualities, such elements are most widely used.

The design of carbon fixed resistors can be film or volumetric. In this case, the qualities of graphite as a material with high resistivity are used. There are other resistors, for example, integral ones. They are used in specific integrated circuits where the use of other elements is not possible.

Variable resistors

Beginning radio amateurs often confuse a variable resistor with a variable capacitor, since in appearance they are very similar to each other. However, they have completely different functions, and there are also significant differences in how they are represented on the circuit diagrams.

The design of a variable resistor includes a slider that rotates along the resistive surface. Its main function is to adjust the parameters, which consists in changing the internal resistance to the desired value. The operation of the volume control in audio equipment and other similar devices is based on this principle. All adjustments are made by smoothly changing voltage and current in electronic devices.

The main parameter of a variable resistor is its resistance, which can vary within certain limits. In addition, it has an installed power that it must withstand. All types of resistors have these qualities.

On domestic circuit diagrams, elements of variable type are indicated in the form of a rectangle, on which two main and one additional terminal are marked, located vertically or passing through the icon diagonally.

In foreign diagrams, the rectangle is replaced by a curved line indicating an additional output. Next to the designation is the English letter R with the serial number of a particular element. The value of the nominal resistance is indicated next to it.

Connection of resistors

In electronics and electrical engineering, resistor connections are often used in various combinations and configurations. For greater clarity, you should consider a separate section of the circuit with serial, parallel and.

In a series connection, the end of one resistor is connected to the beginning of the next element. Thus, all resistors are connected one after another, and a total current of the same value flows through them. Between the start and end points there is only one path for current to flow. As the number of resistors connected into a common circuit increases, there is a corresponding increase in the total resistance.

A connection is considered parallel when the starting ends of all resistors are combined at one point, and the final outputs at another point. Current flow occurs through each individual resistor. As a result of parallel connection, as the number of connected resistors increases, the number of paths for current flow also increases. The total resistance in such a section decreases in proportion to the number of connected resistors. It will always be less than the resistance of any resistor connected in parallel.

Most often in radio electronics, a mixed connection is used, which is a combination of parallel and serial options.

In the diagram shown, resistors R2 and R3 are connected in parallel. The series connection includes resistor R1, a combination of R2 and R3, and resistor R4. In order to calculate the resistance of such a connection, the entire circuit is divided into several simple sections. After this, the resistance values ​​are summed up and the overall result is obtained.

Semiconductors

A standard semiconductor diode consists of two terminals and one rectifying electrical junction. All elements of the system are combined in a common housing made of ceramic, glass, metal or plastic. One part of the crystal is called the emitter, due to the high concentration of impurities, and the other part, with a low concentration, is called the base. The marking of semiconductors on the diagrams reflects their design features and technical characteristics.

Germanium or silicon is used to make semiconductors. In the first case, it is possible to achieve a higher transmission coefficient. Elements made of germanium are characterized by increased conductivity, for which even a low voltage is sufficient.

Depending on the design, semiconductors can be point or planar, and according to technological characteristics they can be rectifier, pulse or universal.

Capacitors

A capacitor is a system that includes two or more electrodes made in the form of plates - plates. They are separated by a dielectric, which is much thinner than the capacitor plates. The entire device has mutual capacitance and has the ability to store electrical charge. In the simplest diagram, the capacitor is presented in the form of two parallel metal plates separated by some kind of dielectric material.

On the circuit diagram, next to the image of the capacitor, its nominal capacitance is indicated in microfarads (μF) or picofarads (pF). When designating electrolytic and high-voltage capacitors, after the rated capacitance the value of the maximum operating voltage, measured in volts (V) or kilovolts (kV), is indicated.

Variable capacitors

To designate capacitors with variable capacitance, two parallel segments are used, which are crossed by an inclined arrow. Movable plates connected at a certain point in the circuit are depicted as a short arc. Next to it is a designation for the minimum and maximum capacity. A block of capacitors, consisting of several sections, is combined using a dashed line intersecting the adjustment signs (arrows).

The trimmer capacitor designation includes a slanted line with a dash at the end instead of an arrow. The rotor appears as a short arc. Other elements - thermal capacitors - are designated by the letters SK. In its graphic representation, a temperature symbol is placed next to the nonlinear regulation sign.

Permanent capacitors

Graphic symbols for capacitors with constant capacitance are widely used. They are depicted as two parallel segments and conclusions from the middle of each of them. The letter C is placed next to the icon, after it - the serial number of the element and, with a small interval, a numerical designation of the nominal capacity.

When using a capacitor with in a circuit, an asterisk is placed instead of its serial number. The rated voltage value is indicated only for high voltage circuits. This applies to all capacitors except electrolytic ones. The digital voltage symbol is placed after the capacity designation.

The connection of many electrolytic capacitors requires correct polarity. In the diagrams, a “+” sign or a narrow rectangle is used to indicate a positive cover. In the absence of polarity, narrow rectangles mark both plates.

Diodes and Zener diodes

Diodes are the simplest semiconductor devices that operate on the basis of an electron-hole junction known as a pn junction. The property of one-way conductivity is clearly conveyed in graphic symbols. A standard diode is depicted as a triangle, symbolizing the anode. The apex of the triangle indicates the direction of conduction and abuts the transverse line indicating the cathode. The entire image is intersected in the center by an electrical circuit line.

The letter designation VD is used. It displays not only individual elements, but also entire groups, for example, . The type of a particular diode is indicated next to its position designation.

The basic symbol is also used to designate zener diodes, which are semiconductor diodes with special properties. The cathode has a short stroke directed towards the triangle, symbolizing the anode. This stroke is positioned unchanged, regardless of the position of the zener diode icon on the circuit diagram.

Transistors

Most electronic components have only two terminals. However, elements such as transistors are equipped with three terminals. Their designs come in a variety of types, shapes and sizes. Their general principles of operation are the same, and minor differences are associated with the technical characteristics of a particular element.

Transistors are used primarily as electronic switches to turn various devices on and off. The main convenience of such devices is the ability to switch high voltages using a low voltage source.

At its core, each transistor is a semiconductor device with the help of which electrical oscillations are generated, amplified and converted. The most widespread are bipolar transistors with the same electrical conductivity of the emitter and collector.

In the diagrams they are designated by the letter code VT. The graphic image is a short dash with a line extending from the middle of it. This symbol indicates the base. Two inclined lines are drawn to its edges at an angle of 60 0, displaying the emitter and collector.

The electrical conductivity of the base depends on the direction of the emitter arrow. If it is directed towards the base, then the electrical conductivity of the emitter is p, and that of the base is n. When the arrow is directed in the opposite direction, the emitter and base change their electrical conductivity to the opposite value. Knowledge of electrical conductivity is necessary to correctly connect the transistor to the power source.

In order to make the designation on the diagrams of radio components of the transistor more clear, it is placed in a circle indicating the housing. In some cases, a metal housing is connected to one of the terminals of the element. Such a place on the diagram is displayed as a dot placed where the pin intersects with the housing symbol. If there is a separate terminal on the case, then the line indicating the terminal can be connected to a circle without a dot. Near the positional designation of the transistor its type is indicated, which can significantly increase the information content of the circuit.

Letter designations on radio component diagrams

Basic designation	Item name	Additional designation	Device type
	Device		Current regulator
			Relay block
			Device
	Converters		Speaker
			Thermal sensor
			Photocell
			Microphone
			Pickup
	Capacitors		Power capacitor bank
			Charging capacitor block
	Integrated circuits, microassemblies		IC analog
			Digital IC, logic element
	Elements are different		Thermal electric heater
			Lighting lamp
	Arresters, fuses, protective devices		Discrete instantaneous current protection element
			The same for inertial current
			fuse
			Arrester
	Generators, power supplies		Battery
			Synchronous compensator
			Generator exciter
	Indicating and signaling devices		Sound alarm device
			Indicator
			Light signaling device
			Signal board
			Signal lamp with green lens
			Signal lamp with red lens
			Signal lamp with white lens
			Ionic and semiconductor indicators
	Relays, contactors, starters		Current relay
			Indicator relay
			Electrothermal relay
			Contactor, magnetic starter
			Time relay
			Voltage relay
			Enable command relay
			Trip command relay
			Intermediate relay
	Inductors, chokes		Fluorescent lighting control
			Action time meter, clock
			Voltmeter
			Wattmeter
	Power switches and disconnectors		Automatic switch
	Resistors		Thermistor
			Potentiometer
			Measuring shunt
			Varistor
	Switching device in control, signaling and measuring circuits		Switch or switch
			Push-button switch
			Automatic switch
	Autotransformers		Current transformer
			Voltage transformers
	Converters		Modulator
			Demodulator
			power unit
			Frequency converter
	Electrovacuum and semiconductor devices		Diode, zener diode
			Electrovacuum device
			Transistor
			Thyristor
	Contact connectors		Current collector
			High frequency connector
	Mechanical devices with electromagnetic drive		Electromagnet
			Electromagnetic lock

click on the picture to enlarge

In practical work related primarily to the repair of electronic equipment, the task arises of determining the type of electronic component, its parameters, location of pins, and deciding on direct replacement or using an analogue. Most existing reference books provide information on individual types of radio components (transistors, diodes, etc.). However, it is not enough, and this reference guide is a necessary addition to such books. The book presented to the reader on the marking of electronic components contains, in contrast to previously published similar publications, a larger volume of information. It provides data on the letter, color and code marking of components, on the code marking of foreign surface-mount semiconductor devices (SMD), provides data on the marking of some previously unexplained types of foreign components, and provides recommendations on the use and testing of the serviceability of electronic components.

Preface
1. Resistors
1.1. General information
1.2. Designation and marking of resistors
Notation
Marking of domestically produced resistors
Marking of foreign-made resistors
Marking of resistor assemblies
1.3. Technical data and marking of unpackaged SMD resistors
General information
Marking of SMD resistors
1.4. Features of the use and marking of variable resistors
Variable and trimming resistors from BOURNS
1.5. Resistors with special properties
Thermistors
Varistors
2. Capacitors
2.1. General information
2.2. Designation and marking of capacitors
Domestic designation system
Capacitor markings
Coded digital marking
Color coding
2.3. Features of marking of some types of SMD capacitors
Ceramic 5ME capacitors
Oxide SMD capacitors
Tantalum SMD capacitors
Marking of TRES electrolytic capacitors
Capacitors from HITANO
Tips for practical use
2.4. Trimmer capacitors from foreign companies
2.5. Other types of capacitors
3. Inductors
3.1. General information
3.2. Inductor markings
Surface Mount Inductor Markings
3.3. Chokes series D, DM, DP, DPM
4. Marking of quartz resonators and piezofilters
4.1. Marking of resonators and filters of domestic production
4.2. Features of marking resonators and filters of foreign production...
4.3. Features of marking filters produced by Murata
5. Marking of semiconductor devices
5.1. Domestic and foreign labeling systems
semiconductor devices
Marking R-MOS transistors Harris (Intersil)
Marking IGBT transistors Harris (Intersil)
International Rectifier transistor markings
Marking of semiconductor devices from Mo1o1a
5.2. General purpose diodes
Housing types and diode pin locations
Color marking of domestic diodes
Color marking of foreign diodes
Color marking of domestic zener diodes and stabilizers
Color marking of domestic varicaps
Alphanumeric code marking of foreign SMD diodes
production
Color marking of SMD diodes in SOD-80, DO-213АА, DO-213АВ packages
Photodiodes
Transistors
Features of code and color marking of domestic transistors
6. Marking of semiconductor SMD radio components
6.1. Identification of SMD components by markings
6.2. Types of SMD transistor packages
6.3. How to use the system
Equivalents and additional information
7. Features of testing electronic components
7.1. Capacitor testing
7.2. Semiconductor Diode Testing
7.3. Transistor testing
7.4. Testing of unijunction and programmable unijunction
transistors
7.5. Testing of dinistors, thyristors, triacs
7.6. Determination of the structure and location of transistor pins,
the type of which is unknown
7.7. Testing MOSFETs
7.8. LED testing
7.9. Optocoupler testing
7.10. Thermistor testing
7.11. Zener diode testing
7.12. Transistor pin locations
Appendix 1. Brief reference data on foreign diodes
Appendix 2. Brief reference data on foreign transistors
Appendix 3. Types of microwave transistor housings

– electronic components assembled into analog and digital devices: TVs, measuring instruments, smartphones, computers, laptops, tablets. If previously parts were depicted close to their natural appearance, today conventional graphic symbols of radio components on the diagram, developed and approved by the International Electrotechnical Commission, are used.

Types of Electronic Circuits

In radio electronics, there are several types of circuits: circuit diagrams, wiring diagrams, block diagrams, voltage and resistance maps.

Schematic diagrams

Such an electrical diagram gives a complete picture of all the functional components of the circuit, the types of connections between them, and the operating principle of electrical equipment. Circuit diagrams are commonly used in distribution networks. They are divided into two types:

• Single-line. This drawing shows only power circuits.
• Full. If the electrical installation is simple, then all its elements can be displayed on one sheet. To describe equipment that contains several circuits (power, measuring, control), drawings are made for each unit and placed on different sheets.

Block diagrams

In radio electronics, a block is an independent part of an electronic device. A block is a general concept; it can include both a small and a significant number of parts. A block diagram (or block diagram) gives only a general concept of the structure of an electronic device. It does not display: the exact composition of the blocks, the number of ranges of their functioning, the schemes according to which they are assembled. In a block diagram, blocks are represented by squares or circles, and the connections between them are represented by one or two lines. The directions of signal passage are indicated by arrows. The names of the blocks in full or abbreviated form can be applied directly to the diagram. The second option is to number the blocks and decipher these numbers in a table located in the margins of the drawing. Graphic images of blocks can display the main parts or plot their operation.

Assembly

Wiring diagrams are convenient for creating an electrical circuit yourself. They indicate the location of each circuit element, communication methods, and the laying of connecting wires. The designation of radioelements on such diagrams usually approaches their natural appearance.

Voltage and resistance maps

A voltage map (diagram) is a drawing in which, next to the individual parts and their terminals, the voltage values ​​characteristic of the normal operation of the device are indicated. Voltages are placed in the gaps of the arrows, showing in which places measurements need to be made. The resistance map indicates the resistance values ​​characteristic of a working device and circuits.

How are various radio components indicated in the diagrams?

As previously mentioned, there is a specific graphic symbol to designate radio components of each type.

Resistors

These parts are designed to regulate the current in the circuit. Fixed resistors have a certain and constant resistance value. For variables, the resistance ranges from zero to the set maximum value. The names and symbols of these radio components in the diagram are regulated by GOST 2.728-74 ESKD. In general, in the drawing they represent a rectangle with two terminals. American manufacturers designate resistors on diagrams with a zigzag line. image of resistors on diagrams
image of resistors on circuit diagrams

Fixed resistors

Characterized by resistance and power. They are indicated by a rectangle with lines indicating a specific power value. Exceeding the specified value will lead to failure of the part. The diagram also indicates: the letter R (resistor), a number indicating the serial number of the part in the circuit, and the resistance value. These radio components are designated by numbers and letters - “K” and “M”. The letter “K” means kOhm, “M” means mOhm.

Variable resistors

image of variable resistors on diagrams. Their design includes a moving contact, which changes the value of resistance. The part is used as a control element in audio and other similar equipment. In the diagram it is indicated by a rectangle indicating fixed and moving contacts. The drawing shows a constant nominal resistance. There are several options for connecting resistors:
resistor connection options

• Consistent. The end lead of one part is connected to the start lead of the other. A common current flows through all elements of the circuit. Connecting each subsequent resistor increases the resistance.
• Parallel. The initial terminals of all resistances are connected at one point, the final terminals at another. Current flows through each resistor. The total resistance in such a circuit is always less than the resistance of an individual resistor.
• Mixed. This is the most popular type of connection of parts, combining the two described above.

Capacitors

graphical representation of capacitors in diagrams A capacitor is a radio component consisting of two plates separated by a dielectric layer. It is applied to the diagram in the form of two lines (or rectangles for electrolytic capacitors) indicating the plates. The gap between them is a dielectric layer. Capacitors are second only to resistors in terms of popularity in circuits. Capable of accumulating an electrical charge with subsequent release.

• Capacitors with constant capacitance. The letter “C”, the serial number of the part, and the value of the nominal capacity are placed next to the icon.
• With variable capacity. The minimum and maximum capacity values ​​are indicated next to the graphic icon.

In circuits with high voltage in capacitors, with the exception of electrolytic ones, the voltage value is indicated after the capacitance. When connecting electrolytic capacitors, polarity must be observed. To indicate a positively charged plate, use the “+” sign or a narrow rectangle. If there is no polarity, both plates are indicated by narrow rectangles. Electrolytic capacitors are installed in power supply filters for low-frequency and pulsed devices.

Diodes and Zener diodes

graphic representation of diodes and zener diodes on diagrams A diode is a semiconductor device designed to pass electric current in one direction and create obstacles to its flow in the opposite direction. This radio element is designated in the form of a triangle (anode), the top of which is directed in the direction of current flow. A line (cathode) is placed in front of the vertex of the triangle. A zener diode is a type of semiconductor diode. Stabilizes the voltage of reverse polarity applied to the terminals. A stabistor is a diode to the terminals of which a voltage of direct polarity is applied.

Transistors

Transistors are semiconductor devices used to generate, amplify and convert electrical oscillations. With their help, they control and regulate the voltage in the circuit. They differ in a variety of designs, frequency ranges, shapes and sizes. The most popular are bipolar transistors, designated in diagrams by the letters VT. They are characterized by the same electrical conductivity of the collector and emitter.
graphic representation of transistors on circuits

Microcircuits

Microcircuits are complex electronic components. They are a semiconductor substrate into which resistors, capacitors, diodes and other radio components are integrated. They are used to convert electrical pulses into digital, analog, analog-digital signals. Available with or without housing. The rules for conventional graphic designation (UGO) of digital and microprocessor microcircuits are regulated by GOST 2.743-91 ESKD. According to them, the UGO has the shape of a rectangle. The diagram shows the supply lines to it. The rectangle consists of only the main field or the main one and two additional ones. The main field must indicate the functions performed by the element. Additional fields usually decipher the pin assignments. Primary and secondary fields may or may not be separated by a solid line. graphic representation of microcircuits

Buttons, relays, switches

graphic representation of buttons and switches on a diagram

relay image on diagrams

Letter designation of radio components on the diagram

Letter codes of radioelements on circuit diagrams

Devices and elements	Letter code
Devices: amplifiers, remote control devices, lasers, masers; general designation	A
Converters of non-electrical quantities into electrical ones (except for generators and power supplies) or vice versa, analogue or multi-digit converters, sensors for indicating or measuring; general designation	IN
Speaker	VA
Magnetostrictive element	BB
Ionizing radiation detector	BD
Selsyn sensor	Sun
Selsyn receiver	BE
Telephone (capsule)	B.F.
Thermal sensor	VC
Photocell	B.L.
Microphone	VM
Pressure meter	VR
Piezo element	IN
Speed ​​sensor, tachogenerator	BR
Pickup	B.S.
Speed ​​sensor	VV
Capacitors	WITH
Integrated circuits, microassemblies: general designation	D
Integrated analog microcircuit	D.A.
Integrated digital microcircuit, logical element	DD
Information storage device (memory)	D.S.
Delay device	D.T.
Various elements: general designation	E
Lighting lamp	EL
A heating element	EC
Arresters, fuses, protection devices: general designation	F
fuse	F.U.
Generators, power supplies, crystal oscillators: general designation	G
Battery of galvanic cells, batteries	G.B.
Indicating and signaling devices; general designation	N
Sound alarm device	ON
Symbolic indicator	HG
Light signaling device	H.L.
Relays, contactors, starters; general designation	TO
Electrothermal relay	kk
Time relay	CT
Contactor, magnetic starter	km
Inductors, chokes; general designation	L
Engines, general designation	M
Measuring instruments; general designation	R
Ammeter (milliammeter, microammeter)	RA
Pulse counter	PC
Frequency meter	PF
Ohmmeter	PR
Recording device	PS
Action time meter, clock	RT
Voltmeter	PV
Wattmeter	PW
Resistors are constant and variable; general designation	R
Thermistor	RK
Measuring shunt	R.S.
Varistor	RU
Switches, disconnectors, short circuits in power circuits (in equipment power supply circuits); general designation	Q
Switching devices in control, signaling and measuring circuits; general designation	S
Switch or switch	S.A.
Push-button switch	S.B.
Automatic switch	SF
Transformers, autotransformers; general designation	T
Electromagnetic stabilizer	T.S.
Converters of electrical quantities into electrical ones, communication devices; general designation	And
Modulator	ive
Demodulator	UR
Discriminator	Ul
Frequency converter, inverter, frequency generator, rectifier	UZ
Semiconductor and electrovacuum devices; general designation	V
Diode, zener diode	VD
Transistor	VT
Thyristor	VS
Electrovacuum device	VL
Microwave lines and elements; general designation	W
Coupler	WE
Koro tkoea we ka tel	W.K.
Valve	W.S.
Transformer, phase shifter, heterogeneity	W.T.
Attenuator	W.U.
Antenna	W.A.
Contact connections; general designation	X
Pin (plug)	XP
Socket (socket)	XS
Demountable connection	XT
High frequency connector	XW
Mechanical devices with electromagnetic drive; general designation	Y
Electromagnet	YA
Electromagnetic brake	YB
Electromagnetic clutch	YC
Terminal devices, filters; general designation	Z
Limiter	ZL
Quartz filter	ZQ

Letter codes of the functional purpose of a radio-electronic device or element

Functional purpose of the device, element	Letter code
Auxiliary	A
Counting	WITH
Differentiating	D
Protective	F
Test	G
Signal	N
Integrating	1
Gpavny	M
Measuring	N
Proportional	R
State (start, stop, limit)	Q
Return, reset	R
Memorizing, recording	S
Synchronizing, delaying	T
Speed ​​(acceleration, braking)	V
Summing	W
Multiplication	X
Analog	Y
Digital	Z

Letter abbreviations for radio electronics

Letter abbreviation	Decoding the abbreviation
A.M.	amplitude modulation
AFC	automatic frequency adjustment
APCG	automatic local oscillator frequency adjustment
APChF	automatic frequency and phase adjustment
AGC	automatic gain control
ARYA	automatic brightness adjustment
AC	acoustic system
AFU	antenna-feeder device
ADC	analog-to-digital converter
frequency response	amplitude-frequency response
BGIMS	large hybrid integrated circuit
NOS	wireless remote control
BIS	large integrated circuit
BOS	signal processing unit
BP	power unit
BR	scanner
DBK	radio channel block
BS	information block
BTK	blocking transformer personnel
BTS	blocking transformer line
BOO	Control block
BC	chroma block
BCI	integrated color block (using microcircuits)
VD	video detector
VIM	time-pulse modulation
VU	video amplifier; input (output) device
HF	high frequency
G	heterodyne
GW	playback head
GHF	high frequency generator
GHF	hyper high frequency
GZ	start generator; recording head
GIR	heterodyne resonance indicator
GIS	hybrid integrated circuit
GKR	frame generator
GKCH	sweep generator
GMW	meter wave generator
GPA	smooth range generator
GO	envelope generator
HS	signal generator
GSR	line scan generator
gss	standard signal generator
yy	clock generator
GU	universal head
VCO	voltage controlled generator
D	detector
dv	long waves
dd	fractional detector
days	voltage divider
dm	power divider
DMV	decimeter waves
DU	remote control
DShPF	dynamic noise reduction filter
EASC	unified automated communication network
ESKD	unified system of design documentation
zg	audio frequency generator; master oscillator
zs	slowing system; sound signal; pickup
AF	audio frequency
AND	integrator
ICM	pulse code modulation
ICU	quasi-peak level meter
ims	integrated circuit
ini	linear distortion meter
inch	infra-low frequency
and he	reference voltage source
SP	power supply
ichh	frequency response meter
To	switch
KBV	traveling wave coefficient
HF	short waves
kWh	extremely high frequency
KZV	recording-playback channel
CMM	pulse code modulation
kk	frame deflection coils
km	coding matrix
cnc	extremely low frequency
efficiency	efficiency
KS	deflection system line coils
ksv	standing wave ratio
ksvn	voltage standing wave ratio
CT	check Point
KF	focusing coil
TWT	traveling wave lamp
lz	delay line
fishing	back wave lamp
LPD	avalanche diode
lppt	tube-semiconductor TV
m	modulator
M.A.	magnetic antenna
M.B.	meter waves
TIR	metal-insulator-semiconductor structure
MOP	metal-oxide-semiconductor structure
ms	chip
MU	microphone amplifier
neither	nonlinear distortion
LF	low frequency
ABOUT	common base (switching on a transistor according to a circuit with a common base)
VHF	very high frequency
oi	common source (turning on the transistor *according to a circuit with a common source)
OK	common collector (switching on a transistor according to a circuit with a common collector)
onch	very low frequency
oos	negative feedback
OS	deflection system
OU	operational amplifier
OE	common emitter (connecting a transistor according to a circuit with a common emitter)
Surfactant	surface acoustic waves
pds	two-speech set-top box
Remote control	remote control
pcn	code-voltage converter
pnc	voltage-to-code converter
PNC	converter voltage frequency
village	positive feedback
PPU	noise suppressor
pch	intermediate frequency; frequency converter
ptk	tv channel switch
PTS	full TV signal
Vocational school	industrial television installation
PU	preliminary effort
PUV	playback pre-amplifier
PUZ	recording pre-amplifier
PF	bandpass filter; piezo filter
ph	transfer characteristic
pcts	full color television signal
Radar	line linearity regulator; radar station
RP	memory register
RPCHG	manual adjustment of local oscillator frequency
RRS	line size control
PC	shift register; mixing regulator
RF	notch or stop filter
REA	radio-electronic equipment
SBDU	wireless remote control system
VLSI	ultra-large scale integrated circuit
NE	medium waves
SVP	touch program selection
Microwave	ultra high frequency
sg	signal generator
SDV	ultralong waves
SDU	dynamic light installation; remote control system
SK	channel selector
SLE	all-wave channel selector
sk-d	UHF channel selector
SK-M	meter wave channel selector
CM	mixer
ench	ultra-low frequency
JV	grid field signal
ss	clock signal
ssi	horizontal clock pulse
SU	selector amplifier
sch	average frequency
TV	tropospheric radio waves; TV
TVS	line output transformer
tvz	audio output channel transformer
tvk	output frame transformer
TIT	television test chart
TKE	temperature coefficient of capacitance
tka	temperature coefficient of inductance
tkmp	temperature coefficient of initial magnetic permeability
tkns	temperature coefficient of stabilization voltage
tks	temperature coefficient of resistance
ts	network transformer
shopping center	television center
tsp	color bar table
THAT	technical specifications
U	amplifier
UV	playback amplifier
UVS	video amplifier
UVH	sample-hold device
UHF	high frequency signal amplifier
UHF	UHF
UZ	recording amplifier
Ultrasound	audio amplifier
VHF	ultrashort waves
ULPT	unified tube-semiconductor TV
ULLTST	unified lamp-semiconductor color TV
ULT	unified tube TV
UMZCH	audio power amplifier
CNT	unified TV
ULF	low frequency signal amplifier
UNU	voltage controlled amplifier.
UPT	DC amplifier; unified semiconductor TV
HRC	intermediate frequency signal amplifier
UPCHZ	intermediate frequency signal amplifier?
UPCH	intermediate frequency image amplifier
URCH	radio frequency signal amplifier
US	interface device; comparison device
USHF	microwave signal amplifier
USS	horizontal sync amplifier
USU	universal touch device
UU	control device (node)
UE	accelerating (control) electrode
UEIT	universal electronic test chart
PLL	phase automatic frequency control
HPF	high pass filter
FD	phase detector; photodiode
FIM	pulse phase modulation
FM	phase modulation
LPF	low pass filter
FPF	intermediate frequency filter
FPCHZ	audio intermediate frequency filter
FPCH	image intermediate frequency filter
FSI	lumped selectivity filter
FSS	concentrated selection filter
FT	phototransistor
FCHH	phase-frequency response
DAC	digital-to-analog converter
Digital computer	digital computer
CMU	color and music installation
DH	central television
BH	frequency detector
CHIM	pulse frequency modulation
world championship	frequency modulation
shim	pulse width modulation
shs	noise signal
ev	electron volt (e V)
COMPUTER.	electronic computer
emf	electromotive force
ek	electronic switch
CRT	cathode-ray tube
AMY	electronic musical instrument
emos	electromechanical feedback
EMF	electromechanical filter
EPU	record player
Digital computer	electronic digital computer

In the article you will learn about what radio components exist. The designations on the diagram according to GOST will be reviewed. You need to start with the most common ones - resistors and capacitors.

To assemble any structure, you need to know what radio components look like in reality, as well as how they are indicated on electrical diagrams. There are a lot of radio components - transistors, capacitors, resistors, diodes, etc.

Capacitors

Capacitors are parts that are found in any design without exception. Typically, the simplest capacitors are two metal plates. And air acts as a dielectric component. I immediately remember my physics lessons at school, when we covered the topic of capacitors. The model was two huge flat round pieces of iron. They were brought closer to each other, then further away. And measurements were taken in each position. It is worth noting that mica can be used instead of air, as well as any material that does not conduct electric current. The designations of radio components on imported circuit diagrams differ from GOST standards adopted in our country.

Please note that regular capacitors do not carry direct current. On the other hand, it passes through it without any particular difficulties. Given this property, a capacitor is installed only where it is necessary to separate the alternating component in direct current. Therefore, we can make an equivalent circuit (using Kirchhoff’s theorem):

1. When operating on alternating current, the capacitor is replaced by a piece of conductor with zero resistance.
2. When operating in a DC circuit, the capacitor is replaced (no, not by capacitance!) by resistance.

The main characteristic of a capacitor is its electrical capacitance. The unit of capacitance is Farad. It's very big. In practice, as a rule, they are used which are measured in microfarads, nanofarads, microfarads. In the diagrams, the capacitor is indicated in the form of two parallel lines, from which there are taps.

Variable capacitors

There is also a type of device in which the capacity changes (in this case due to the fact that there are movable plates). The capacitance depends on the size of the plate (in the formula, S is its area), as well as on the distance between the electrodes. In a variable capacitor with an air dielectric, for example, due to the presence of a moving part, it is possible to quickly change the area. Consequently, the capacity will also change. But the designation of radio components on foreign diagrams is somewhat different. A resistor, for example, is depicted on them as a broken curve.

Permanent capacitors

These elements have differences in design, as well as in the materials from which they are made. The most popular types of dielectrics can be distinguished:

1. Air.
2. Mica.
3. Ceramics.

But this applies exclusively to non-polar elements. There are also electrolytic capacitors (polar). It is these elements that have very large capacities - ranging from tenths of microfarads to several thousand. In addition to the capacity, such elements have one more parameter - the maximum voltage value at which its use is allowed. These parameters are written on the diagrams and on the capacitor housings.

on the diagrams

It is worth noting that in the case of using trimmer or variable capacitors, two values ​​are indicated - the minimum and maximum capacitance. In fact, on the case you can always find a certain range in which the capacitance will change if you turn the axis of the device from one extreme position to another.

Let's say we have a variable capacitor with a capacitance of 9-240 (default measurement in picofarads). This means that with minimal plate overlap the capacitance will be 9 pF. And at the maximum - 240 pF. It is worth considering in more detail the designation of radio components on the diagram and their name in order to be able to correctly read technical documentation.

Connection of capacitors

We can immediately distinguish three types (there are just so many) combinations of elements:

1. Sequential- the total capacity of the entire chain is quite easy to calculate. In this case, it will be equal to the product of all the capacities of the elements divided by their sum.
2. Parallel- in this case, calculating the total capacity is even easier. It is necessary to add up the capacitances of all capacitors in the chain.
3. Mixed- in this case, the diagram is divided into several parts. We can say that it is simplified - one part contains only elements connected in parallel, the second - only in series.

And this is just general information about capacitors; in fact, you can talk a lot about them, citing interesting experiments as examples.

Resistors: general information

These elements can also be found in any design - be it in a radio receiver or in a control circuit on a microcontroller. This is a porcelain tube on which a thin film of metal (carbon - in particular, soot) is sprayed on the outside. However, you can even apply graphite - the effect will be similar. If resistors have very low resistance and high power, then it is used as a conductive layer

The main characteristic of a resistor is resistance. Used in electrical circuits to set the required current value in certain circuits. In physics lessons, a comparison was made with a barrel filled with water: if you change the diameter of the pipe, you can adjust the speed of the stream. It is worth noting that the resistance depends on the thickness of the conductive layer. The thinner this layer, the higher the resistance. In this case, the symbols of radio components on the diagrams do not depend on the size of the element.

Fixed resistors

As for such elements, the most common types can be distinguished:

1. Metallized varnished heat-resistant - abbreviated as MLT.
2. Moisture-resistant resistance - VS.
3. Carbon varnished small-sized - ULM.

Resistors have two main parameters - power and resistance. The last parameter is measured in Ohms. But this unit of measurement is extremely small, so in practice you will more often find elements whose resistance is measured in megaohms and kiloohms. Power is measured exclusively in Watts. Moreover, the dimensions of the element depend on the power. The larger it is, the larger the element. And now about what designation exists for radio components. On diagrams of imported and domestic devices, all elements may be designated differently.

On domestic circuits, a resistor is a small rectangle with an aspect ratio of 1:3; its parameters are written either on the side (if the element is located vertically) or on top (in the case of a horizontal arrangement). First, the Latin letter R is indicated, then the serial number of the resistor in the circuit.

Variable resistor (potentiometer)

Constant resistances have only two terminals. But there are three variables. On the electrical diagrams and on the element body, the resistance between the two extreme contacts is indicated. But between the middle and any of the extremes, the resistance will change depending on the position of the resistor axis. Moreover, if you connect two ohmmeters, you can see how the reading of one will change downwards, and the second - up. You need to understand how to read electronic circuit diagrams. It will also be useful to know the designations of radio components.

The total resistance (between the extreme terminals) will remain unchanged. Variable resistors are used to control gain (you use them to change the volume on radios and televisions). In addition, variable resistors are actively used in cars. These are fuel level sensors, electric motor speed controllers, and lighting brightness controllers.

Connection of resistors

In this case, the picture is completely opposite to that of capacitors:

1. Serial connection- the resistance of all elements in the circuit adds up.
2. Parallel connection- the product of resistances is divided by the sum.
3. Mixed- the entire circuit is divided into smaller chains and calculated step by step.

With this, you can close the review of resistors and begin to describe the most interesting elements - semiconductor ones (designations of radio components on the diagrams, GOST for UGO, are discussed below).

Semiconductors

This is the largest part of all radio elements, since semiconductors include not only zener diodes, transistors, diodes, but also varicaps, variconds, thyristors, triacs, microcircuits, etc. Yes, microcircuits are one crystal on which can be a great variety of radioelements - capacitors, resistances, and p-n junctions.

As you know, there are conductors (metals, for example), dielectrics (wood, plastic, fabrics). The designations of radio components on the diagram may be different (a triangle is most likely a diode or a zener diode). But it is worth noting that a triangle without additional elements denotes logical ground in microprocessor technology.

These materials either conduct current or not, regardless of their state of aggregation. But there are also semiconductors whose properties change depending on specific conditions. These are materials such as silicon and germanium. By the way, glass can also be partly classified as a semiconductor - in its normal state it does not conduct current, but when heated the picture is completely opposite.

Diodes and Zener diodes

A semiconductor diode has only two electrodes: a cathode (negative) and an anode (positive). But what are the features of this radio component? You can see the designations on the diagram above. So, you connect the power supply with positive to the anode and negative to the cathode. In this case, electric current will flow from one electrode to another. It is worth noting that the element in this case has extremely low resistance. Now you can conduct an experiment and connect the battery in reverse, then the resistance to the current increases several times, and it stops flowing. And if you send alternating current through the diode, the output will be constant (though with small ripples). When using a bridge switching circuit, two half-waves (positive) are obtained.

Zener diodes, like diodes, have two electrodes - a cathode and an anode. When connected directly, this element works in exactly the same way as the diode discussed above. But if you turn the current in the opposite direction, you can see a very interesting picture. Initially, the zener diode does not pass current through itself. But when the voltage reaches a certain value, breakdown occurs and the element conducts current. This is the stabilization voltage. A very good property, thanks to which it is possible to achieve stable voltage in circuits and completely get rid of fluctuations, even the smallest ones. The designation of radio components in the diagrams is in the form of a triangle, and at its apex there is a line perpendicular to the height.

Transistors

If diodes and zener diodes can sometimes not even be found in designs, then you will find transistors in any (except Transistors have three electrodes:

1. Base (abbreviated as "B").
2. Collector (K).
3. Emitter (E).

Transistors can operate in several modes, but most often they are used in amplification and switch modes (like a switch). A comparison can be made with a megaphone - they shouted into the base, and an amplified voice flew out of the collector. And hold the emitter with your hand - this is the body. The main characteristic of transistors is the gain (ratio of collector and base current). It is this parameter, along with many others, that is basic for this radio component. The symbols on the diagram for a transistor are a vertical line and two lines approaching it at an angle. There are several most common types of transistors:

1. Polar.
2. Bipolar.
3. Field.

There are also transistor assemblies consisting of several amplification elements. These are the most common radio components that exist. The designations on the diagram were discussed in the article.